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    "url": "https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/safety-availability-biologics/statement-fda-commissioner-scott-gottlieb-md-and-director-fdas-center-biologics-evaluation-and-0",
    "final": "https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/safety-availability-biologics/statement-fda-commissioner-scott-gottlieb-md-and-director-fdas-center-biologics-evaluation-and-0",
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        "term": "FDA",
        "snippet": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
      },
      {
        "term": "warning",
        "snippet": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
      }
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    "text_sample": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
  },
  "fda_myalept": {
    "url": "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/125390s000lbl.pdf",
    "final": "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/125390s000lbl.pdf",
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    "url": "https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-approves-myalept-treat-rare-metabolic-disease",
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      {
        "term": "FDA",
        "snippet": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
      },
      {
        "term": "warning",
        "snippet": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
      }
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    "text_sample": "Page Not Found | FDA An official website of the United States government Here\u2019s how you know The .gov means it\u2019s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. \u00a0 Search \u00a0 Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Espa\u00f1ol Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials Page Not Found We\u2019re sorry. The page you are looking for is not available for one of the following reasons. The link to this page may not be correct or is out-of-date. You have bookmarked a page that has moved. Try one of these options: Search FDA.gov \u00a0 Check the FDA Archive \u00a0 Contact FDA Or try one of these helpful links to FDA topics: FDA.gov Homepage Food Human Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Footer Links FDA Archive About FDA Accessibility Visitor Information Website Policies / Privacy No FEAR Act Vulnerability Disclosure Policy FOIA HHS.gov USA.gov Contact FDA Follow FDA on Facebook Follow FDA on X Follow FDA on Instagram Follow FDA on LinkedIn View FDA videos on YouTube Subscribe to FDA RSS feeds Contact Number 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332) Back to Top"
  },
  "nih_leptin_obesity": {
    "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537038/",
    "final": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537038/",
    "status": 200,
    "file": "source_nih_leptin_obesity.html",
    "snippets": [
      {
        "term": "plasma",
        "snippet": "dipose tissue and encoded by the obese ( ob ) gene. While leptin's role is\u00a0classically\u00a0described in the regulation of appetite, neuroendocrine function, and energy homeostasis, it seems to influence several\u00a0other physiological processes. These include metabolism, endocrine regulation, and immune function, with possible other functions still awaiting characterization. Leptin abnormalities have associations with a variety of metabolic syndromes, particularly obesity. The study of leptin physiology has contributed to our understanding of energy homeostasis, and it seems likely that it plays a pivotal role in developing effective treatments for the growing obesity epidemic. Total body fat mass index (BMI), metabolic hormones, and gender are the factors that most strongly influence circulating plasma leptin concentrations. Women have higher levels of circulating leptin compared to men. [1] Cellular Level Biology Leptin is a peptide hormone synthesized by white adipose tissue. The leptin gene ( LEP or ob) is on chromosome 7q31.3. [2] \u00a0The mature protein comprises 146 amino acids and is produced through mRNA-directed protein synthesis. [3] Its structure is similar to that of proinflammatory cytokines found throughout the body, such as interleukin-6 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. [4] The amount of leptin in the blood is directly proportional to the amount of adipose tissue. Leptin exerts its effects by binding to leptin receptors on cell surfaces. Leptin receptors are present on neuronal, hepatic, pancreatic, cardiac, and intestinal tissue. Mechanism The\u00a0leptin receptor belongs to the glycoprotein 130 family of cytokine receptors and comprises 6 isoforms. Of these isoforms, isoform-b is the most characterized. Its long form is the receptor subtype that principally mediates the activation of critical second-messenger pathways and normal leptin action. [5] The main signaling pathway for the leptin receptor is the JAK-STAT pathway. As leptin binds, it dimerizes the leptin receptor. This dimerization leads to JAK2 tyrosine kinase phosphorylating\u00a03 tyrosine residues that serve as docking sites for the proteins SHP2, STAT5, and STAT3. The function of SHP is to participate in ERK signaling, and the function of STAT 5 is as yet undetermined. STAT3 acts as a transcription factor responsible for mediating leptin\u2019s primary actions.\u00a0 Function Leptin's principal site of action is the brain, specifically in the brainstem and hypothalamus. The major sites of action in the brainstem are the solitary tract and the ventral tegmental area. Leptin acts here to modulate satiety and the control of reward and aversion. In the hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamic area and the ventromedial, dorsomedial, ventral pre-mammillary, and arcuate (ARC) nuclei are leptin\u2019s major sites of action. The activation of these areas leads to various changes, including in the thyroid, gonadal, adrenocorticotropic hormone-cortisol, and growth hormone axes, as well as in whole-brain c"
      },
      {
        "term": "FDA",
        "snippet": " levels and adipocyte\u00a0 LEP \u00a0mRNA content decrease\u00a0with weight reduction. The mechanism of resistance appears to be related to defects in leptin transport across the blood-brain barrier or in intracellular signaling downstream of the leptin receptor. Other diseases associated with hyperleptinemia include nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, Rabson\u2013Mendenhall syndrome, neurodegenerative disorders, depression, and food addiction. [11] Therapeutics Recombinant forms of leptin are under investigation in the treatment of both hypoleptinemia and hyperleptinemia-related syndrome.\u00a0Initially studied to reverse obesity, leptin replacement has only reversed obesity in leptin-deficient conditions, with replacement in typically obese individuals with elevated leptin levels showing limited efficacy. It has FDA approval for the treatment of congenital or acquired generalized lipodystrophy (non-HIV-related). Specific studies show that leptin replacement is effective in reversing some abnormalities in the above-mentioned syndromes, but these conditions are not yet recognized indications for the\u00a0use\u00a0of recombinant leptin as\u00a0a treatment. [12] Review Questions Access free multiple choice questions on this topic. Comment on this article. References 1. Grinspoon S, Gulick T, Askari H, Landt M, Lee K, Anderson E, Ma Z, Vignati L, Bowsher R, Herzog D, Klibanski A. Serum leptin levels in women with anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Nov; 81 (11):3861-3. [ PubMed : 8923829 ] 2. Gong DW, Bi S, Pratley RE, Weintraub BD. Genomic structure and promoter analysis of the human obese gene. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 23; 271 (8):3971-4. [ PubMed : 8626726 ] 3. Wasim M, Awan FR, Najam SS, Khan AR, Khan HN. Role of Leptin Deficiency, Inefficiency, and Leptin Receptors in Obesity. Biochem Genet. 2016 Oct; 54 (5):565-72. [ PubMed : 27313173 ] 4. Peelman F, Zabeau L, Moharana K, Savvides SN, Tavernier J. 20 years of leptin: insights into signaling assemblies of the leptin receptor. J Endocrinol. 2014 Oct; 223 (1):T9-23. [ PubMed : 25063754 ] 5. Allison MB, Myers MG. 20 years of leptin: connecting leptin signaling to biological function. J Endocrinol. 2014 Oct; 223 (1):T25-35. [ PMC free article : PMC4170570 ] [ PubMed : 25232147 ] 6. Amjad S, Baig M, Zahid N, Tariq S, Rehman R. Association between leptin, obesity, hormonal interplay and male infertility. Andrologia. 2019 Feb; 51 (1):e13147. [ PubMed : 30255520 ] 7. Farr OM, Gavrieli A, Mantzoros CS. Leptin applications in 2015: what have we learned about leptin and obesity? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2015 Oct; 22 (5):353-9. [ PMC free article : PMC4610373 ] [ PubMed : 26313897 ] 8. Flier JS, Maratos-Flier E. Leptin's Physiologic Role: Does the Emperor of Energy Balance Have No Clothes? Cell Metab. 2017 Jul 05; 26 (1):24-26. [ PubMed : 28648981 ] 9. Funcke JB, von Schnurbein J, Lennerz B, Lahr G, Debatin KM, Fischer-Posovszky P, Wabitsch M. Monogenic forms of childhood obesity due to mutations in the leptin gene. Mol Cell P"
      },
      {
        "term": "warning",
        "snippet": "var ncbi_startTime = new Date(); Physiology, Leptin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf p a.figpopup{display:inline !important} .bk_tt {font-family: monospace} .first-line-outdent .bk_ref {display: inline} .body-content h2, .body-content .h2 {border-bottom: 1px solid #97B0C8} .body-content h2.inline {border-bottom: none} a.page-toc-label , .jig-ncbismoothscroll a {text-decoration:none;border:0 !important} .temp-labeled-list .graphic {display:inline-block !important} .temp-labeled-list img{width:100%} window.name=\"mainwindow\"; Warning: The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. more... An official website of the United States government Here's how you know The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Log in Show account info Close Account Logged in as: username Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation Bookshelf Search database Books All Databases Assembly Biocollections BioProject BioSample Books ClinVar Conserved Domains dbGaP dbVar Gene Genome GEO DataSets GEO Profiles GTR Identical Protein Groups MedGen MeSH NLM Catalog Nucleotide OMIM PMC Protein Protein Clusters Protein Family Models PubChem BioAssay PubChem Compound PubChem Substance PubMed SNP SRA Structure Taxonomy ToolKit ToolKitAll ToolKitBookgh Search term Search Browse Titles Advanced Help Disclaimer --> NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. StatPearls [Internet]. Show details Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing ; 2026 Jan-. Search term Physiology, Leptin Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula . Author Information and Affiliations Authors Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula 1 . Affiliations 1 Deaconess HS, IN University School Med Last Update: April 10, 2023 . Introduction Leptin is a peptide hormone released from adipose tissue and encoded by the obese ( ob ) gene. While leptin's role is\u00a0classically\u00a0described in the regulation of appetite, neuroendocrine function, and energy homeostasis, it seems to influence several\u00a0other physiological processes. These include metabolism, endocrine regulation, and immune function, with possible other functions still awaiting characterization. Leptin abnormalities have associations with a variety of metabolic syndromes, particularly obesity. The study of leptin physiology has cont"
      },
      {
        "term": "clinical",
        "snippet": "e also promoting energy-sparing neuroendocrine and autonomic mechanisms, including decreased sympathetic nervous system tone, thyroid hormone levels, and reproductive hormone levels, as well as reduced energy expenditure and growth. As this signal, leptin is the catalyst for the body's transition into a starvation mode, a global adaptation aimed towards increasing food intake and decreasing energy expenditure. A decrease in serum leptin then is the starvation signal for the CNS. As food intake increases and adipose tissue accumulates, there is a concurrent rise in leptin production and secretion into the bloodstream. With increased leptin comes inhibition of the body\u2019s starvation mode, thereby reducing food intake and increasing energy expenditure to counteract the current energy surplus. Clinical Significance Leptin deficiency or\u00a0resistance\u00a0is associated with dysregulated cytokine production, increased susceptibility to infections, autoimmune disorders, malnutrition, and heightened inflammatory responses. Pathophysiology and Clinical Relevance Hypoleptinemia Complete leptin deficiency results in the clinical phenotypes of severe obesity, impaired satiety, intense hyperphagia, constant food-seeking behavior, recurrent bacterial infections, hyperinsulinemia, liver steatosis, dyslipidemia, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. [9] [10] \u00a0These phenotypes highlight the variety of roles leptin plays in the body, many of which are not well understood and remain under active investigation. Congenital forms of hypoleptinemia result from mutations in \u00a0 the LEP \u00a0or leptin receptor genes\u00a0and are known as congenital leptin deficiencies (CLD). Acquired hypoleptinemias share some of these same phenotypes and are usually due to conditions that cause a low body weight. Examples of acquired conditions are lipodystrophy syndromes and hypothalamic amenorrhea. Hyperleptinemia Hyperleptinemia is associated with leptin resistance, specifically resistance to leptin's anorectic and body-weight-reducing effects. Hyperleptinemia and leptin resistance are components of common obesity.\u00a0Evidence for this association is a direct correlation between serum leptin concentrations and body fat percentage,\u00a0with obese individuals having higher serum leptin levels and adipocyte\u00a0 LEP \u00a0mRNA content than\u00a0normal-weight individuals.\u00a0Also,\u00a0serum leptin levels and adipocyte\u00a0 LEP \u00a0mRNA content decrease\u00a0with weight reduction. The mechanism of resistance appears to be related to defects in leptin transport across the blood-brain barrier or in intracellular signaling downstream of the leptin receptor. Other diseases associated with hyperleptinemia include nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, Rabson\u2013Mendenhall syndrome, neurodegenerative disorders, depression, and food addiction. [11] Therapeutics Recombinant forms of leptin are under investigation in the treatment of both hypoleptinemia and hyperleptinemia-related syndrome.\u00a0Initially studied to reverse obesity, leptin replacement has only reversed ob"
      },
      {
        "term": "leptin",
        "snippet": "var ncbi_startTime = new Date(); Physiology, Leptin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf p a.figpopup{display:inline !important} .bk_tt {font-family: monospace} .first-line-outdent .bk_ref {display: inline} .body-content h2, .body-content .h2 {border-bottom: 1px solid #97B0C8} .body-content h2.inline {border-bottom: none} a.page-toc-label , .jig-ncbismoothscroll a {text-decoration:none;border:0 !important} .temp-labeled-list .graphic {display:inline-block !important} .temp-labeled-list img{width:100%} window.name=\"mainwindow\"; Warning: The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. more... An official website of the United States government Here's how you know The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Log in Show account info Close Account Logged in as: username Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation Bookshelf Search database Books All Databases Assembly Biocollections BioProject BioSample Books ClinVar Conserved Domains dbGaP dbVar Gene Genome GEO DataSets GEO Profiles GTR Identical Protein Groups MedGen MeSH NLM Catalog Nucleotide OMIM PMC Protein Protein Clusters Protein Family Models PubChem BioAssay PubChem Compound PubChem Substance PubMed SNP SRA Structure Taxonomy ToolKit ToolKitAll ToolKitBookgh Search term Search Browse Titles Advanced Help Disclaimer --> NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. StatPearls [Internet]. Show details Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing ; 2026 Jan-. Search term Physiology, Leptin Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula . Author Information and Affiliations Authors Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula 1 . Affiliations 1 Deaconess HS, IN University School Med Last Update: April 10, 2023 . Introduction Leptin is a peptide hormone released from adipose tissue and encoded by"
      },
      {
        "term": "lipodystrophy",
        "snippet": "ses. Pathophysiology and Clinical Relevance Hypoleptinemia Complete leptin deficiency results in the clinical phenotypes of severe obesity, impaired satiety, intense hyperphagia, constant food-seeking behavior, recurrent bacterial infections, hyperinsulinemia, liver steatosis, dyslipidemia, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. [9] [10] \u00a0These phenotypes highlight the variety of roles leptin plays in the body, many of which are not well understood and remain under active investigation. Congenital forms of hypoleptinemia result from mutations in \u00a0 the LEP \u00a0or leptin receptor genes\u00a0and are known as congenital leptin deficiencies (CLD). Acquired hypoleptinemias share some of these same phenotypes and are usually due to conditions that cause a low body weight. Examples of acquired conditions are lipodystrophy syndromes and hypothalamic amenorrhea. Hyperleptinemia Hyperleptinemia is associated with leptin resistance, specifically resistance to leptin's anorectic and body-weight-reducing effects. Hyperleptinemia and leptin resistance are components of common obesity.\u00a0Evidence for this association is a direct correlation between serum leptin concentrations and body fat percentage,\u00a0with obese individuals having higher serum leptin levels and adipocyte\u00a0 LEP \u00a0mRNA content than\u00a0normal-weight individuals.\u00a0Also,\u00a0serum leptin levels and adipocyte\u00a0 LEP \u00a0mRNA content decrease\u00a0with weight reduction. The mechanism of resistance appears to be related to defects in leptin transport across the blood-brain barrier or in intracellular signaling downstream of the leptin receptor. Other diseases associated with hyperleptinemia include nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, Rabson\u2013Mendenhall syndrome, neurodegenerative disorders, depression, and food addiction. [11] Therapeutics Recombinant forms of leptin are under investigation in the treatment of both hypoleptinemia and hyperleptinemia-related syndrome.\u00a0Initially studied to reverse obesity, leptin replacement has only reversed obesity in leptin-deficient conditions, with replacement in typically obese individuals with elevated leptin levels showing limited efficacy. It has FDA approval for the treatment of congenital or acquired generalized lipodystrophy (non-HIV-related). Specific studies show that leptin replacement is effective in reversing some abnormalities in the above-mentioned syndromes, but these conditions are not yet recognized indications for the\u00a0use\u00a0of recombinant leptin as\u00a0a treatment. [12] Review Questions Access free multiple choice questions on this topic. Comment on this article. References 1. Grinspoon S, Gulick T, Askari H, Landt M, Lee K, Anderson E, Ma Z, Vignati L, Bowsher R, Herzog D, Klibanski A. Serum leptin levels in women with anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Nov; 81 (11):3861-3. [ PubMed : 8923829 ] 2. Gong DW, Bi S, Pratley RE, Weintraub BD. Genomic structure and promoter analysis of the human obese gene. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 23; 271 (8):3971-4. [ PubMed : 8626726 ] 3. Wasim M, Awa"
      },
      {
        "term": "tyrosine",
        "snippet": "terleukin-6 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. [4] The amount of leptin in the blood is directly proportional to the amount of adipose tissue. Leptin exerts its effects by binding to leptin receptors on cell surfaces. Leptin receptors are present on neuronal, hepatic, pancreatic, cardiac, and intestinal tissue. Mechanism The\u00a0leptin receptor belongs to the glycoprotein 130 family of cytokine receptors and comprises 6 isoforms. Of these isoforms, isoform-b is the most characterized. Its long form is the receptor subtype that principally mediates the activation of critical second-messenger pathways and normal leptin action. [5] The main signaling pathway for the leptin receptor is the JAK-STAT pathway. As leptin binds, it dimerizes the leptin receptor. This dimerization leads to JAK2 tyrosine kinase phosphorylating\u00a03 tyrosine residues that serve as docking sites for the proteins SHP2, STAT5, and STAT3. The function of SHP is to participate in ERK signaling, and the function of STAT 5 is as yet undetermined. STAT3 acts as a transcription factor responsible for mediating leptin\u2019s primary actions.\u00a0 Function Leptin's principal site of action is the brain, specifically in the brainstem and hypothalamus. The major sites of action in the brainstem are the solitary tract and the ventral tegmental area. Leptin acts here to modulate satiety and the control of reward and aversion. In the hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamic area and the ventromedial, dorsomedial, ventral pre-mammillary, and arcuate (ARC) nuclei are leptin\u2019s major sites of action. The activation of these areas leads to various changes, including in the thyroid, gonadal, adrenocorticotropic hormone-cortisol, and growth hormone axes, as well as in whole-brain cognition, emotions, memory, and structure. Many of these relationships are still being worked out. [6] [7] The most well-known of them is leptin\u2019s actions on the ARC nucleus. The ARC nucleus is a major player in regulating appetite and energy homeostasis. It contains orexigenic agouti-related protein/neuropeptide Y-containing (AgRP/NPY) neurons and anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin-containing (POMC) neurons. Leptin acts on the ARC nucleus by stimulating POMC-containing neurons and inhibiting AgRP/NPY-containing neurons, resulting in a total effect of decreased appetite. Taken as a whole, leptin\u2019s function in the body pertains to regulating the balance between food intake and energy expenditure. The classic primary physiologic role of leptin is to serve as a marker of long-term energy stores for the central nervous system (CNS). [8] As the amount of adipose tissue decreases, the amount of leptin produced and crossing the blood-brain barrier decreases. The CNS interrupts the decline in leptin signaling, which signals an energy deficit and triggers a cascade of responses to help the body cope with the stress of starvation. To counteract the energy deficit, the CNS increases hunger while also promoting energy-sparing neuroendocrine and"
      },
      {
        "term": "compound",
        "snippet": "ral government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Log in Show account info Close Account Logged in as: username Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation Bookshelf Search database Books All Databases Assembly Biocollections BioProject BioSample Books ClinVar Conserved Domains dbGaP dbVar Gene Genome GEO DataSets GEO Profiles GTR Identical Protein Groups MedGen MeSH NLM Catalog Nucleotide OMIM PMC Protein Protein Clusters Protein Family Models PubChem BioAssay PubChem Compound PubChem Substance PubMed SNP SRA Structure Taxonomy ToolKit ToolKitAll ToolKitBookgh Search term Search Browse Titles Advanced Help Disclaimer --> NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. StatPearls [Internet]. Show details Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing ; 2026 Jan-. Search term Physiology, Leptin Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula . Author Information and Affiliations Authors Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula 1 . Affiliations 1 Deaconess HS, IN University School Med Last Update: April 10, 2023 . Introduction Leptin is a peptide hormone released from adipose tissue and encoded by the obese ( ob ) gene. While leptin's role is\u00a0classically\u00a0described in the regulation of appetite, neuroendocrine function, and energy homeostasis, it seems to influence several\u00a0other physiological processes. These include metabolism, endocrine regulation, and immune function, with possible other functions still awaiting characterization. Leptin abnormalities have associations with a variety of metabolic syndromes, particularly obesity. The study of leptin physiology has contributed to our understanding of energy homeostasis, and it seems likely that it plays a pivotal role in developing effective treatments for the growing obesity epidemic. Total body fat mass index (BMI), metabolic hormones, and gender are the factors that most strongly influence circulating plasma leptin concentrations. Women have higher levels of circulating leptin compared to men. [1] Cellular Level Biology Leptin is a peptide hormone synthesized by white adipose tissue. The leptin gene ( LEP or ob) is on chromosome 7q31.3. [2] \u00a0The mature protein comprises 146 amino acids and is produced through mRNA-directed protein synthesis. [3] Its structure is similar to that of proinflammatory cytokines found throughout the body, such as interleukin-6 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. [4] The amount of leptin in the blood is directly proportional to the amount of adipose tissue. Leptin exerts its effects by binding to leptin receptors on cell surfaces. Leptin "
      }
    ],
    "text_sample": "var ncbi_startTime = new Date(); Physiology, Leptin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf p a.figpopup{display:inline !important} .bk_tt {font-family: monospace} .first-line-outdent .bk_ref {display: inline} .body-content h2, .body-content .h2 {border-bottom: 1px solid #97B0C8} .body-content h2.inline {border-bottom: none} a.page-toc-label , .jig-ncbismoothscroll a {text-decoration:none;border:0 !important} .temp-labeled-list .graphic {display:inline-block !important} .temp-labeled-list img{width:100%} window.name=\"mainwindow\"; Warning: The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. more... An official website of the United States government Here's how you know The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Log in Show account info Close Account Logged in as: username Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation Bookshelf Search database Books All Databases Assembly Biocollections BioProject BioSample Books ClinVar Conserved Domains dbGaP dbVar Gene Genome GEO DataSets GEO Profiles GTR Identical Protein Groups MedGen MeSH NLM Catalog Nucleotide OMIM PMC Protein Protein Clusters Protein Family Models PubChem BioAssay PubChem Compound PubChem Substance PubMed SNP SRA Structure Taxonomy ToolKit ToolKitAll ToolKitBookgh Search term Search Browse Titles Advanced Help Disclaimer --> NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. StatPearls [Internet]. Show details Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing ; 2026 Jan-. Search term Physiology, Leptin Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula . Author Information and Affiliations Authors Sean Dornbush ; Narothama R. Aeddula 1 . Affiliations 1 Deaconess HS, IN University School Med Last Update: April 10, 2023 . Introduction Leptin is a peptide hormone released from adipose tissue and encoded by the obese ( ob ) gene. While leptin's role is\u00a0classically\u00a0described in the regulation of appetite, neuroendocrine function, and energy homeostasis, it seems to influence several\u00a0other physiological processes. These include metabolism, endocrine regulatio"
  },
  "medlineplus_leptin_receptor": {
    "url": "https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/lepr/",
    "final": "https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/lepr/",
    "status": 200,
    "file": "source_medlineplus_leptin_receptor.html",
    "snippets": [
      {
        "term": "clinical",
        "snippet": "nt K, Vaisse C, Lahlou N, Cabrol S, Pelloux V, Cassuto D, Gourmelen M, Dina C, Chambaz J, Lacorte JM, Basdevant A, Bougneres P, Lebouc Y, Froguel P, Guy-Grand B. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature. 1998 Mar 26;392(6674):398-401. doi: 10.1038/32911. Citation on PubMed Dubern B, Clement K. Leptin and leptin receptor-related monogenic obesity. Biochimie. 2012 Oct;94(10):2111-5. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.05.010. Epub 2012 May 22. Citation on PubMed Farooqi IS, Wangensteen T, Collins S, Kimber W, Matarese G, Keogh JM, Lank E, Bottomley B, Lopez-Fernandez J, Ferraz-Amaro I, Dattani MT, Ercan O, Myhre AG, Retterstol L, Stanhope R, Edge JA, McKenzie S, Lessan N, Ghodsi M, De Rosa V, Perna F, Fontana S, Barroso I, Undlien DE, O'Rahilly S. Clinical and molecular genetic spectrum of congenital deficiency of the leptin receptor. N Engl J Med. 2007 Jan 18;356(3):237-47. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa063988. Citation on PubMed or Free article on PubMed Central Kimber W, Peelman F, Prieur X, Wangensteen T, O'Rahilly S, Tavernier J, Farooqi IS. Functional characterization of naturally occurring pathogenic mutations in the human leptin receptor. Endocrinology. 2008 Dec;149(12):6043-52. doi: 10.1210/en.2008-0544. Epub 2008 Aug 14. Citation on PubMed Lee YS. The role of leptin-melanocortin system and human weight regulation: lessons from experiments of nature. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2009 Jan;38(1):34-11. Citation on PubMed Wasim M, Awan FR, Najam SS, Khan AR, Khan HN. Role of Leptin Deficiency, Inefficiency, and Leptin Receptors in Obesity. Biochem Genet. 2016 Oct;54(5):565-72. doi: 10.1007/s10528-016-9751-z. Epub 2016 Jun 16. Citation on PubMed Genomic Location The LEPR gene is found on chromosome 1 . Related Health Topics Genes and Gene Therapy Genetic Disorders MEDICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA Genes Genetics Understanding Genetics What is DNA? What is a gene? What is a gene variant and how do variants occur? Disclaimers MedlinePlus links to health information from the National Institutes of Health and other federal government agencies. MedlinePlus also links to health information from non-government Web sites. See our disclaimer about external links and our quality guidelines . Genetics Home Reference has merged with MedlinePlus. Genetics Home Reference content now can be found in the \"Genetics\" section of MedlinePlus. Learn more --> The information on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Contact a health care provider if you have questions about your health. Learn how to cite this page About MedlinePlus What's New Site Map Customer Support Subscribe to RSS Connect with NLM NLM Web Policies Copyright Accessibility Guidelines for Links Viewers & Players HHS Vulnerability Disclosure MedlinePlus Connect for EHRs For Developers National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20894 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health Last updated J"
      },
      {
        "term": "leptin",
        "snippet": "ite of the United States government Here\u00e2\u0080\u0099s how you know Here\u00e2\u0080\u0099s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you\u00e2\u0080\u0099ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. National Library of Medicine Menu Health Topics Drugs & Supplements Genetics Medical Tests Medical Encyclopedia About MedlinePlus Search Search MedlinePlus GO About MedlinePlus What's New Site Map Customer Support Health Topics Drugs & Supplements Genetics Medical Tests Medical Encyclopedia You Are Here: Home \u2192 Genetics \u2192 Genes \u2192 LEPR gene URL of this page: https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/lepr/ LEPR gene leptin receptor To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. Normal Function The LEPR gene provides instructions for making a protein called the leptin receptor, which is involved in the regulation of body weight. The leptin receptor protein is found on the surface of cells in many organs and tissues of the body, including a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls hunger and thirst as well as other functions such as sleep, moods, and body temperature. It also regulates the release of many hormones that have functions throughout the body. The leptin receptor is turned on (activated) by a hormone called leptin that attaches (binds) to the receptor, fitting into it like a key into a lock. Normally, the body's fat cells release leptin in proportion to their size. As fat cells become larger, they produce more leptin. This rise in leptin indicates that fat stores are increasing. In the hypothalamus, the binding of leptin to its receptor triggers a series of chemical signals that affect hunger and help produce a feeling of fullness (satiety). Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes Leptin receptor deficiency At least 18 LEPR gene mutations that cause leptin receptor deficiency have been identified; this disorder is associated with excessive hunger, massive weight gain, and reduced production of hormones that direct sexual development (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism). Some of the mutations result in less receptor protein getting to the cell surface where leptin binding takes place. The receptors that get to the cell surface may bind to leptin, but their signaling function is impaired. The resulting shortage of leptin signaling disrupts normal feelings of hunger and satiety, leading to extreme weight gain. Because hypogonadotropic hypogonadism occurs in leptin receptor deficiency, researchers suggest that leptin receptor signaling is also involved in regulating the body's response to hormones that control sexual development, and that this response is affected by LEPR gene mutations. However, the mechanism of this effect is unknown. More About This Health Condition Other Names for This Gene LEP-R LEPR_HUMAN OB recept"
      }
    ],
    "text_sample": "LEPR gene: MedlinePlus Genetics document.getElementsByTagName('html')[0].className = document.getElementsByTagName('html')[0].className.replace( /(?:^|\\s)nojs(?!\\S)/g , '').trim(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MMVM77'); Skip navigation An official website of the United States government Here\u00e2\u0080\u0099s how you know Here\u00e2\u0080\u0099s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you\u00e2\u0080\u0099ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. National Library of Medicine Menu Health Topics Drugs & Supplements Genetics Medical Tests Medical Encyclopedia About MedlinePlus Search Search MedlinePlus GO About MedlinePlus What's New Site Map Customer Support Health Topics Drugs & Supplements Genetics Medical Tests Medical Encyclopedia You Are Here: Home \u2192 Genetics \u2192 Genes \u2192 LEPR gene URL of this page: https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/lepr/ LEPR gene leptin receptor To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. Normal Function The LEPR gene provides instructions for making a protein called the leptin receptor, which is involved in the regulation of body weight. The leptin receptor protein is found on the surface of cells in many organs and tissues of the body, including a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls hunger and thirst as well as other functions such as sleep, moods, and body temperature. It also regulates the release of many hormones that have functions throughout the body. The leptin receptor is turned on (activated) by a hormone called leptin that attaches (binds) to the receptor, fitting into it like a key into a lock. Normally, the body's fat cells release leptin in proportion to their size. As fat cells become larger, they produce more leptin. This rise in leptin indicates that fat stores are increasing. In the hypothalamus, the binding of leptin to its receptor triggers a series of chemical signals that affect hunger and help produce a feeling of fullness (satiety). Health Conditions Related to Genetic Chang"
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  "pubchem_adrenochrome": {
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      {
        "term": "adrenochrome",
        "snippet": "Adrenochrome | C9H9NO3 | CID 5898 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
      }
    ],
    "text_sample": "Adrenochrome | C9H9NO3 | CID 5898 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
  },
  "pubchem_epinephrine": {
    "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Epinephrine",
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        "term": "epinephrine",
        "snippet": "Epinephrine | C9H13NO3 | CID 5816 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
      }
    ],
    "text_sample": "Epinephrine | C9H13NO3 | CID 5816 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
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  "pubchem_melanin": {
    "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Melanin",
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        "snippet": "Melanins | C18H10N2O4 | CID 6325610 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
      }
    ],
    "text_sample": "Melanins | C18H10N2O4 | CID 6325610 - PubChem window.ncbi_startTime = new Date () { \"@context\": \"https://schema.org\", \"@type\": \"Organization\", \"name\": \"PubChem\", \"url\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\", \"logo\": \"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pcfe/logo/PubChem_logo.png\", \"foundingDate\": \"2004\" } const storageAvailable=function(){try{return window.localStorage.test=0,window.localStorage.removeItem(\"test\"),!0}catch(e){return!1}}();function setMode(){\"dark\"!==localStorage.mode&&(\"mode\"in localStorage&&\"system\"!==localStorage.mode||!window.matchMedia(\"(prefers-color-scheme: dark)\").matches)?document.documentElement.classList.remove(\"dark\"):document.documentElement.classList.add(\"dark\")}!String(location.hash).match(/mode=light/i)&&storageAvailable&&(window.addEventListener(\"storage\",(()=>{setMode()})),setMode()); JavaScript is required... Please enable Javascript in order to use PubChem website. document.querySelector ('#root').innerHTML = ' Apologies, we no longer support your browser... Please use a modern browser, such as Chrome , Firefox , or Edge to access PubChem website. ';"
  }
}