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And could they be masquerading as trusted world leaders? The team gets to the heart of this frightening controversy that stretches from ancient civilizations, to the European monarchy, all the way to our current heads of state...and beyond. When Jesse finds himself face to face with an infamous personality who has spread the gospel of the Reptilian Conspiracy far and wide, things start to get ugly. Will they come to blows? Or will Jesse be blown away by the truth? Read More Expand 2 Death Ray 0 % November 14, 2012 \u2022 1h A lethal weapon that can vaporize targets and whole cities from miles away seems like the stuff of sci-fi movies, but Jesse and his team find that this technology could be all too real as they investigate who might have these secret plans \u2013 and what they plan on doing with it. When threats and danger hit way too close to home, will the crew be able to make it out alive? 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This conspiracy runs deep, but Jesse\u2019s just the guy to do some real digging, with explosive results. Read More Expand 3 Time Travel 0 % November 21, 2012 \u2022 1h Journeying through time is the stuff of fantasy, but somehow has been beyond our grasp\u2026or has it? Jesse tracks down a mysterious man who claims to have visited many iconic moments in American history \u2013 and influenced the course of history in doing so! Could our government be hiding the secret to time travel, and possibly even using it as a weapon? And what can we do should the technology fall into the wrong hands\u2026or has it already? Read More Expand 4 Manimal 0 % November 28, 2012 \u2022 1h Science has made major breakthroughs in drug research and transplant technology by experimenting on \u201cchimeras\u201d \u2013 human/animal embryo hybrids. But these seemingly noble goals may be covering up a much more nefarious purpose \u2013 to create half human, half ape super soldiers, paving the way for a real life Planet of the Apes showdown. Jesse and his team storm the Yerkes Primate Research Center, hidden in the backwoods of Georgia, to find out the truth about \u201chumanzees\u201d \u2013 who may already be walking the earth! Read More Expand 5 Skinwalker 0 % December 5, 2012 \u2022 1h UFOs corralled in the Utah desert \u2013 could it be true? An eccentric millionaire may indeed have a secret or two tucked away on hundreds of acres of a privately owned \u2013 and heavily guarded \u2013 ranch, and it\u2019s not for R&R. 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And could they be masquerading as trusted world leaders? The team gets to the heart of this frightening controversy that stretches from ancient civilizations, to the European monarchy, all the way to our current heads of state...and beyond. When Jesse finds himself face to face with an infamous personality who has spread the gospel of the Reptilian Conspiracy far and wide, things start to get ugly. Will they come to blows? Or will Jesse be blown away by the truth? Read More Expand 2 Death Ray 0 % November 14, 2012 \u2022 1h A lethal weapon that can vaporize targets and whole cities from miles away seems like the stuff of sci-fi movies, but Jesse and his team find that this technology could be all too real as they investigate who might have these secret plans \u2013 and what they plan on doing with it. When threats and danger hit way too close to home, will the crew be able to make it out alive? This conspiracy runs deep, but Jesse\u2019s just the guy to do some real digging, with explosive results. Read More Expand 3 Time Travel 0 % November 21, 2012 \u2022 1h Journeying through time is the stuff of fantasy, but somehow has been beyond our grasp\u2026or has it? Jesse tracks down a mysterious man who claims to have visited many iconic moments in American history \u2013 and influenced the course of history in doing so! Could our government be hiding the secret to time travel, and possibly even using it as a weapon? And what can we do should the technology fall into the wrong hands\u2026or has it already? Read More Expand 4 Manimal 0 % November 28, 2012 \u2022 1h Science has made major breakthroughs in drug research and transplant technology by experimenting on \u201cchimeras\u201d \u2013 human/animal embryo hybrids. But these seemingly noble goals may be covering up a much more nefarious purpose \u2013 to create half human, half ape super soldiers, paving the way for a real life Planet of the Apes showdown. Jesse and his team storm the Yerkes Primate Research Center, hidden in the backwoods of Georgia, to find out the truth about \u201chumanzees\u201d \u2013 who may already be walking the earth! Read More Expand 5 Skinwalker 0 % December 5, 2012 \u2022 1h UFOs corralled in the Utah desert \u2013 could it be true? An eccentric millionaire may indeed have a secret or two tucked away on hundreds of acres of a privately owned \u2013 and heavily guarded \u2013 ranch, and it\u2019s not for R&R. 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window.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { $(document).foundation(); }); Login Register Menu Shows People Networks Web Channels Articles Schedule Calendar Countdown Forums Home Shows Conspiracy Theory with Jesse Ventura Episodes Conspiracy Theory with Jesse Ventura - Episode List Main Episodes Seasons Cast Crew Characters Gallery News S01 S02 S03 Episode Guide Season 3 Number # Date Name Score Status 7 Dec 17, 2012 Brain Invaders - (waiting for more votes) 6 Dec 10, 2012 Manimal - (waiting for more votes) 5 Dec 3, 2012 Skinwalker - (waiting for more votes) 4 Nov 26, 2012 The Ozarks - (waiting for more votes) 3 Nov 21, 2012 Time Travel - (waiting for more votes) 2 Nov 14, 2012 Death Ray - (waiting for more votes) 1 Nov 7, 2012 Reptilians - (waiting for more votes) Season 2 Number # Date Name Score Status 8 Dec 17, 2010 Pentagon - (waiting for more votes) 7 Dec 10, 2010 The Gulf Oil Spill - (waiting for more votes) 6 Dec 3, 2010 Great Lakes - (waiting for more votes) 5 Nov 19, 2010 JFK Assassination - (waiting for more votes) 4 Nov 12, 2010 Police State - (waiting for more votes) 3 Nov 5, 2010 Wall Street - (waiting for more votes) 2 Oct 29, 2010 Area 51 - (waiting for more votes) 1 Oct 15, 2010 Plum Island - (waiting for more votes) Season 1 Number # Date Name Score Status 7 Jan 13, 2010 Apocalypse 2012 - (waiting for more votes) 6 Jan 6, 2010 Manchurian Candidate - (waiting for more votes) 5 Dec 30, 2009 Secret Societies - (waiting for more votes) 4 Dec 23, 2009 Big Brother - (waiting for more votes) 3 Dec 16, 2009 Global Warming - (waiting for more votes) 2 Dec 9, 2009 9/11 - (waiting for more votes) 1 Dec 2, 2009 HAARP - (waiting for more votes) Follow us on: \u00a9 TVmaze.com Features API Blog Request a Show Data Policies Copyright Policy Privacy Policy ToS (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 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(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); var _paq = _paq || [];" }, "nature_habsburg": { "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy201325", "final": "https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy201325", "status": 200, "title": "Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs | Heredity", "file": "source_nature_habsburg.html", "snippets": [ { "term": "Habsburg", "snippet": "Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs | Heredity window.dataLayer = [{\"content\":{\"category\":{\"contentType\":\"original article\",\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsPrimaryArticleType\":\"research\",\"webtrendsSubjectTerms\":\"evolution;inbreeding\",\"webtrendsContentCategory\":null,\"webtrendsContentCollection\":null,\"webtrendsContentGroup\":\"Heredity\",\"webtrendsContentGroupType\":null,\"webtrendsContentSubGroup\":\"Original Article\",\"status\":null}},\"article\":{\"doi\":\"10.1038/hdy.2013.25\"},\"attributes\":{\"cms\":null,\"deliveryPlatform\":\"oscar\",\"copyright\":{\"open\":false,\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsLicenceType\":null}},\"articleInPress\":\"false\"},\"contentInfo\":{\"authors\":[\"F C Ceballos\",\"G \u00c1lvarez\"],\"publishedAt\":1365552000,\"publishedAtString\":\"2013-04-10\",\"title\":\"Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs\",\"legacy\":null,\"publishedAtTime\":null,\"documentType\":\"aplusplus\",\"subjects\":\"Evolution,Inbreeding\"},\"journal\":{\"pcode\":\"hdy\",\"title\":\"heredity\",\"volume\":\"111\",\"issue\":\"2\",\"id\":41437,\"publishingModel\":\"Hybrid Access\"},\"authorization\":{\"status\":true},\"features\":[{\"name\":\"furtherReadingSection\",\"present\":false}],\"collection\":null},\"page\":{\"category\":{\"pageType\":\"article\"},\"attributes\":{\"template\":\"mosaic\",\"featureFlags\":[{\"name\":\"download-collection-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"download-issue-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"nature-onwards-journey\",\"active\":false}],\"testGroup\":null},\"search\":null},\"privacy\":{},\"version\":\"1.0.0\",\"product\":null,\"session\":null,\"user\":null,\"backHalfContent\":true,\"country\":\"CA\",\"hasBody\":true,\"uneditedManuscript\":false,\"twitterId\":[\"o3xnx\",\"o43y9\",\"o3ef7\"],\"baiduId\":\"d38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea\",\"japan\":false}]; 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window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-ERRNTNZ807', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-71668177-1', twitterId: ['3xnx', 'o43y9', 'o3ef7'], baiduId: 'd38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://sgtm.nature.com', imprint: 'nature' }); (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); @media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { html{line-height:1.15;text-size-adj" }, { "term": "inbred", "snippet": "ssive alleles is increased by inbreeding ( Hedrick, 1994 ; Ballou, 1997 ; Wang et al., 1999 ; Crnokrak and Barrett, 2002 ; Gl\u00e9min, 2003 ; Boakes and Wang, 2005 ; Boakes et al., 2007 ; Garc\u00eda-Dorado, 2012 ). Theoretical models predict that the degree of purging depends on the genetic basis of inbreeding depression. Thus, alleles of a large effect, those that are lethals or semilethals when in homozygous condition, will be easily purged from the population in a relatively small number of generations, while the genetic load resulting from mildly deleterious alleles will persist ( Hedrick, 1994 ; Wang et al., 1999 ; Boakes and Wang, 2005 ). In humans, some studies have reported that populations with higher rates of inbreeding tend to display lower inbreeding effect on prereproductive mortality and such an effect was attributed to the successive elimination of deleterious alleles in the more inbred populations ( Sanghvi, 1966 ; Khoury et al., 1987 ; Khlat and Khoury, 1991 ). However, this empirical evidence on purging of inbreeding depression in human populations has been questioned and it is considered as not conclusive ( Chakraborty and Chakravarti, 1977 ; Radha Rama Devi et al., 1987 ; Bittles et al., 1991 ). Therefore, at present, little is known about the purging of inbreeding depression within consanguineous human populations even though this issue is of practical concern because the high prevalence of consanguineous marriages in many contemporary human populations ( Bittles, 2010 , 2012 ; Hamamy et al., 2011 ). In this context, the European royal dynasties as pedigreed populations could be very useful to detect temporal changes in inbreeding depression due to elimination of deleterious alleles. Furthermore, the rate of purging in such dynasties could shed light on the genetic basis of human inbreeding depression as the relative contribution of alleles with major and minor fitness effects to inbreeding depression could be revealed from the differential purging of such alleles ( Charlesworth and Willis, 2009 ). The Habsburg dynasty (also known as the House of Austria) was one of the most important sovereign dynasties of Europe and had two main branches: the Austrian and the Spanish Habsburgs ( Wandruszka, 1964 ; Ingrao, 2000 ; Sked, 2001 ; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007 ; Bennassar et al., 2010 ). As a consequence of the matrimonial policy conducted by the dynasty to establish political alliances through marriage, an important number of consanguineous marriages such as uncle-niece and first-cousins were contracted by the Habsburgs. Some of those unions were marriages between members of the own dynasty in order to keep their heritage in their own hands and other consanguineous unions were marriages with members of related dynasties. The consequences of the prolonged consanguineous marriage have been investigated for the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty ( Alvarez et al., 2009 , 2011 ). It was demonstrated that the inbreeding effects such as inbreeding depression for survival played a major role in the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg lineage at the end of the 17th century. In the present article, we extend the analysis of consanguineous marriage and inbreeding depression from the Spanish Habsburgs to the Habsburg dynasty as a whole. The analysis includes an important number of Habsburg families and covers a period of time of more tha" }, { "term": "Charles II", "snippet": "se three centuries was 0.0628, higher than the kinship coefficient of a first cousin marriage ( Figure 2 ). Approximately 40% of the Habsburg marriages had a kinship coefficient higher than that corresponding to a first-cousin union ( \u03b8 =0.0625) and almost 20% of the marriages had a kinship higher than that corresponding to an uncle-niece union ( \u03b8 =0.125). Consequently, the inbreeding coefficient of both the Austrian Emperors and Spanish kings of the dynasty were very high particularly from the middle of the 16th century. In general, Emperors had inbreeding coefficients lower than Spanish kings. Average of inbreeding coefficients was 0.0752 for the Holy Roman Emperors and 0.1287 for the Spanish kings. The Emperor with the highest inbreeding coefficient was Leopold I ( F =0.1568) and the second highest was Ferdinand II ( F =0.1390), while the Spanish king with the highest inbreeding was Charles II ( F =0.2538) and the second highest was Philip III ( F =0.2177). The highest inbreeding coefficient in the Habsburg dynasty occurred in the Austrian branch where Marie Antoine of Habsburg, daughter of Emperor Leopold I and his niece Margaret of Spain (sister of Charles II of Spain), had an inbreeding coefficient of 0.3053, which is higher than the inbreeding coefficient of the progeny of an incestuous union (parent-offspring or brother-sister). A strong inbreeding depression for both infant and child survival was detected in the progeny of 71 marriages contracted by the Habsburgs in a period of more than 300 years from 1450 to 1800 ( Table 1 , Figure 3 , first column). In the Habsburgs, the inbreeding depression measured as absolute decrease in survival for an F value of 0.0625, corresponding to first cousin offspring, was 8.63%\u00b17.90 for infant survival, 8.50%\u00b18.39 for child survival and 13.54%\u00b15.40 for total survival from birth to 10 years. As compared with the average value of inbreeding depression observed in contemporary human populations, these figures reveal the strong impact of inbreeding on progeny survival in the Habsburgs. Thus, the most recent estimates of the degree of inbreeding depression for prereproductive survival in humans have been obtained from first cousin offspring in two meta-analyses performed from a large number of current human populations ( Bittles and Neel, 1994 ; Bittles and Black, 2010 ). The absolute decrease in survival to a median age of 10 years in the progeny of first cousin marriages relative to unrelated parents was 4.4%\u00b14.6 from a compilation of 38 populations ( Bittles and Neel, 1994 ). Later, this average estimate was revised to a value of 3.5% from 69 human populations resident in 15 countries located across four continents ( Bittles and Black, 2010 ). It is necessary to take into account, however, that the magnitude of inbreeding depression detected in the Habsburg families lies within the range of variation observed in current human populations as the difference in mortality between the offspring of first cousins and those of unrelated parents ranged from nearly zero to \u223c19% in the meta-analyses mentioned above ( Bittles and Neel, 1994 ). In addition, the extent of inbreeding depression in the Habsburgs was not very different from that estimated in other particular inbreeding studies such as those performed in the Utah Mormon population or the Darwin/Wedgwood dynasty. The study of the Utah Mormon popula" }, { "term": "coefficient", "snippet": " if (conditionalScripts) { conditionalScripts.filter(function (script) { return !!document.querySelector(script.match) && !((moduleSupport && script.nomodule) || (!moduleSupport && script.module)); }).forEach(function (script) { loader.insert(loader.createScript(script)); }); } }, false); } }; loader.init(); } })(window, document); {\"mainEntity\":{\"headline\":\"Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs\",\"description\":\"The European royal dynasties of the Early Modern Age provide a useful framework for human inbreeding research. In this article, consanguineous marriage, inbreeding depression and the purging of deleterious alleles within a consanguineous population are investigated in the Habsburgs, a royal dynasty with a long history of consanguinity over generations. Genealogical information from a number of historical sources was used to compute kinship and inbreeding coefficients for the Habsburgs. The marriages contracted by the Habsburgs from 1450 to 1750 presented an extremely high mean kinship (0.0628\u00b10.009), which was the result of the matrimonial policy conducted by the dynasty to establish political alliances through marriage. A strong inbreeding depression for both infant and child survival was detected in the progeny of 71 Habsburg marriages in the period 1450\u20131800. The inbreeding load for child survival experienced a pronounced decrease from 3.98\u00b10.87 in the period 1450\u20131600 to 0.93\u00b10.62 in the period 1600\u20131800, but temporal changes in the inbreeding depression for infant survival were not detected. Such a reduction of inbreeding depression for child survival in a relatively small number of generations could be caused by elimination of deleterious alleles of a large effect according with predictions from purging models. The differential purging of the infant and child inbreeding loads suggest that the genetic basis of inbreeding depression was probably very different for infant and child survival in the Habsburg lineage. Our findings provide empirical support that human inbreeding depression for some fitness components might be purged by selection within consanguineous populations.\",\"datePublished\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"dateModified\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"pageStart\":\"114\",\"pageEnd\":\"121\",\"sameAs\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2013.25\",\"keywords\":[\"Evolution\",\"Inbreeding\",\"royal inbreeding\",\"Habsburg dynasty\",\"consanguineous marriage\",\"inbreeding depression\",\"purging of inbreeding depression\",\"Biomedicine\",\"general\",\"Human Genetics\",\"Evolutionary Biology\",\"Ecology\",\"Cytogenetics\",\"Plant Genetics and Genomics\"],\"image\":[\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig1_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig2_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig3_HTML.jpg\"],\"isPartOf\":{\"name\":\"Heredity\",\"issn\":[\"1365-2540\",\"0018-067X\"],\"volumeNumber\":\"111\",\"@type\":[\"Periodical\",\"PublicationVolume\"]},\"publisher\":{\"name\":\"Springer International Publishing\",\"logo\":{\"url\":\"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png\",\"@type\":\"ImageObject\"},\"@type\":\"Organization\"},\"author\":[{\"name\":\"F C Ceball" }, { "term": "consanguinity", "snippet": "s', module: true}, {match: 'math,span.mathjax-tex', src: '/static/js/math-es5-bundle-8da0cf81d9.js', test: 'math-js', nomodule: true} ]; if (conditionalScripts) { conditionalScripts.filter(function (script) { return !!document.querySelector(script.match) && !((moduleSupport && script.nomodule) || (!moduleSupport && script.module)); }).forEach(function (script) { loader.insert(loader.createScript(script)); }); } }, false); } }; loader.init(); } })(window, document); {\"mainEntity\":{\"headline\":\"Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs\",\"description\":\"The European royal dynasties of the Early Modern Age provide a useful framework for human inbreeding research. In this article, consanguineous marriage, inbreeding depression and the purging of deleterious alleles within a consanguineous population are investigated in the Habsburgs, a royal dynasty with a long history of consanguinity over generations. Genealogical information from a number of historical sources was used to compute kinship and inbreeding coefficients for the Habsburgs. The marriages contracted by the Habsburgs from 1450 to 1750 presented an extremely high mean kinship (0.0628\u00b10.009), which was the result of the matrimonial policy conducted by the dynasty to establish political alliances through marriage. A strong inbreeding depression for both infant and child survival was detected in the progeny of 71 Habsburg marriages in the period 1450\u20131800. The inbreeding load for child survival experienced a pronounced decrease from 3.98\u00b10.87 in the period 1450\u20131600 to 0.93\u00b10.62 in the period 1600\u20131800, but temporal changes in the inbreeding depression for infant survival were not detected. Such a reduction of inbreeding depression for child survival in a relatively small number of generations could be caused by elimination of deleterious alleles of a large effect according with predictions from purging models. The differential purging of the infant and child inbreeding loads suggest that the genetic basis of inbreeding depression was probably very different for infant and child survival in the Habsburg lineage. Our findings provide empirical support that human inbreeding depression for some fitness components might be purged by selection within consanguineous populations.\",\"datePublished\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"dateModified\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"pageStart\":\"114\",\"pageEnd\":\"121\",\"sameAs\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2013.25\",\"keywords\":[\"Evolution\",\"Inbreeding\",\"royal inbreeding\",\"Habsburg dynasty\",\"consanguineous marriage\",\"inbreeding depression\",\"purging of inbreeding depression\",\"Biomedicine\",\"general\",\"Human Genetics\",\"Evolutionary Biology\",\"Ecology\",\"Cytogenetics\",\"Plant Genetics and Genomics\"],\"image\":[\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig1_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig2_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig3_HTML.jpg\"],\"isPartOf\":{\"name\":\"Heredity\",\"issn\":[\"1365-2540\",\"0018-067X\"],\"volumeNumber\":\"111\",\"@type\":[\"Periodical\",\"PublicationVolume\"]},\"publisher\":{\"name\":\"Springer International Publishing\",\"logo\":{\"url\":\"https://www.sprin" }, { "term": "mammal", "snippet": "lanced by changes in other fitness components. Further research on other European royal dynasties is needed to confirm whether our findings are valid exclusively for the Habsburg dynasty or they reflect basic genetic aspects of human inbreeding depression. Data archiving Data deposited in the dryad repository: doi:10.5061/dryad.gt64c . References Ager SL . (2005). Familiarity breeds: Incest and the Ptolemaic dynasty. JHS 125 : 1\u201334. Article Google Scholar Alvarez G, Ceballos FC, Quinteiro C . (2009). The role of inbreeding in the extinction of a European royal dynasty. PLoS ONE 4 (4): e5174. Article Google Scholar Alvarez G, Quinteiro C, Ceballos FC . (2011). Inbreeding and genetic disorder. In: Ikehara K, (ed.). Advances in the Study of Genetic Disorders . InTech: Croatia.. pp 21\u201344. Google Scholar Ballou JD . (1997). Ancestral inbreeding only minimally affects inbreeding depression in mammalian populations. J Hered 88 : 169\u2013178. Article CAS Google Scholar Bennassar B, Blayau N, Denis M, Jacquart J, Lebrun F . (2010) Historia Moderna . Akal: Madrid. Google Scholar Berra TM, Alvarez G, Ceballos FC . (2010). Was the Darwin/Wedgwood dynasty adversely affected by consanguinity? BioScience 60 : 376\u2013383. Article Google Scholar Bittles AH . (2010). Consanguinity, genetic drift, and genetic diseases in populations with reduced numbers of founders. In: Speicher MR, Antonarakis SE, Motulsky AG, (eds). Vogel and Motulsk\u00fds Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches . Springer-Verlag: Berlin. pp 507\u2013528. Chapter Google Scholar Bittles AH . (2012) Consanguinity in Context . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Book Google Scholar Bittles AH, Black ML . (2010). Consanguinity, human evolution, and complex diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107 ((suppl 1):): 1779\u20131786. Article CAS Google Scholar Bittles AH, Mason WM, Greene J, Appaji Rao N . (1991). Reproductive behaviour and health in consanguineous marriages. Science 252 : 789\u2013794. Article CAS Google Scholar Bittles AH, Neel JV . (1994). The costs of human inbreeding and their implications for variations at the DNA level. Nat Genet 8 : 117\u2013121. Article CAS Google Scholar Bixler RH . (1982a). Sibling incest in the royal families of Egypt, Peru and Hawaii. JSR 18 : 264\u2013281. Google Scholar Bixler RH . (1982b). Comment on the incidence and purpose of royal sibling incest. Am Ethnol 9 : 580\u2013582. Article Google Scholar Boakes E, Wang J . (2005). A simulation study on detecting purging of inbreeding depression in captive populations. Genet Res 86 : 139\u2013148. Article Google Scholar Boakes EH, Wang J, Amos W . (2007). An investigation of inbreeding depression and purging in captive pedigreed populations. Heredity 98 : 172\u2013182. Article CAS Google Scholar Bourgeois-Pichat J . (1965). The general development of the population of France since the eighteenth century. In: Glass DV, Eversley DEC, (eds). Population in History . Edward Arnold: London. pp 87\u2013100. Google Scholar Cavalli-Sforza LL, Bodmer WF . (1971) The Genetics of Human Populations . W H Freeman and Company: San Francisco. pp 358\u2013362. Google Scholar Chakraborty R, Chakravarti A . (1977). On consanguineous marriages and the genetic load. Hum Genet 36 : 47\u201354. Article CAS Google Scholar Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D . (1999). The genetic basis of inbreeding depression. Genet Res 74 : 329\u2013340. Article CAS Google Scholar Charlesworth D, Charlesworth B . (1987)." }, { "term": "genome", "snippet": ", relative to non-inbred individuals (see for example, Bittles and Neel, 1994 ; Jorde, 2001 ; Bittles and Black, 2010 ; Hamamy et al., 2011 ; Bittles, 2012 ). Two logistic regression models were used to detect changes in inbreeding depression along time due to purging selection, the ancestral inbreeding regression model devised by Ballou (1997) and an alternative model developed by Boakes and Wang (2005) : ( Ballou, 1997 ) ( Boakes and Wang, 2005 ) In these models, u is the logit transformation of a measure of fitness such as survival, u 0 is the mean fitness of non-inbred individuals, F is the inbreeding coefficient of progeny, F m is the maternal inbreeding, F a is the ancestral inbreeding coefficient, YOB is the year of birth and the \u03b2 parameters are the corresponding regression coefficients. The ancestral inbreeding coefficient ( F a ) is the cumulative proportion of an individual\u2019s genome that has been previously exposed to inbreeding in its ancestors as defined by Ballou (1997) , and was computed as where the subscripts s and d are used to denote coefficients for the sire and dam of the individual. In the Ballou\u2019s model, \u03b2 Fa is the regression coefficient corresponding to the interaction between inbreeding and ancestral inbreeding ( F \u00d7 F a ). In both models, a negative value of \u03b2 F indicated inbreeding depression and a positive value of \u03b2 Fa indicated purging. Regression analyses and other statistical methods were performed by means of either the statistical software R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing 2011, http://www.R-project.org ) or the SPSS 15.0 statistical software system (SPSS inc., http://www.spss.com ). Results Kinship and inbreeding coefficients for the Habsburgs were calculated from a database that included more than 4000 individuals belonging to more than 20 parent-offspring generations. A partial pedigree of the Habsburg dynasty is represented by chains of descent in Figure 1 . A total number of 73 marriages were contracted by the Holy Roman Emperors and the Spanish Habsburg kings, their children and their grandchildren, in the period of 300 years from 1450 to 1750. The children of Habsburg women married to individuals of other different dynasties did not belong to the Habsburg dynasty and therefore these individuals were not considered for the kinship analysis. Many of the Habsburg marriages were consanguineous unions. Thus, there were four uncle-niece marriages (Philip II of Spain with his niece Anna of Habsburg, Archduke Charles of Habsburg with Marie of Bavaria, Philip IV of Spain with Marianna of Habsburg and Leopold I of Habsburg with Margaret of Spain, as shown in Figure 1 ), two double first cousins, nine first cousins, four first cousins once removed (marriage of an individual with the offspring of his/her first cousin), one quadruple second cousins, seven second cousins and many other marriages with more remote kinship. The coefficient of kinship of the Habsburg marriages showed a skewed distribution, as shown in Figure 2 . The mean kinship coefficient was 0.0682, which means that the Habsburg marriages had, on average, a kinship higher than that of a first cousin couple ( \u03b8 =0.0625). In a total number of 73 marriages, 49 (67.1%) had a kinship higher than that of a second cousin marriage ( \u03b8 =0.0156), 29 (39.7%) a kinship higher than first cousins ( \u03b8 =0.0625), 13 (17.8%) a kinship higher than uncle-ni" }, { "term": "political", "snippet": "r.insert(loader.createScript(script)); }); } }, false); } }; loader.init(); } })(window, document); {\"mainEntity\":{\"headline\":\"Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs\",\"description\":\"The European royal dynasties of the Early Modern Age provide a useful framework for human inbreeding research. In this article, consanguineous marriage, inbreeding depression and the purging of deleterious alleles within a consanguineous population are investigated in the Habsburgs, a royal dynasty with a long history of consanguinity over generations. Genealogical information from a number of historical sources was used to compute kinship and inbreeding coefficients for the Habsburgs. The marriages contracted by the Habsburgs from 1450 to 1750 presented an extremely high mean kinship (0.0628\u00b10.009), which was the result of the matrimonial policy conducted by the dynasty to establish political alliances through marriage. A strong inbreeding depression for both infant and child survival was detected in the progeny of 71 Habsburg marriages in the period 1450\u20131800. The inbreeding load for child survival experienced a pronounced decrease from 3.98\u00b10.87 in the period 1450\u20131600 to 0.93\u00b10.62 in the period 1600\u20131800, but temporal changes in the inbreeding depression for infant survival were not detected. Such a reduction of inbreeding depression for child survival in a relatively small number of generations could be caused by elimination of deleterious alleles of a large effect according with predictions from purging models. The differential purging of the infant and child inbreeding loads suggest that the genetic basis of inbreeding depression was probably very different for infant and child survival in the Habsburg lineage. Our findings provide empirical support that human inbreeding depression for some fitness components might be purged by selection within consanguineous populations.\",\"datePublished\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"dateModified\":\"2013-04-10T00:00:00Z\",\"pageStart\":\"114\",\"pageEnd\":\"121\",\"sameAs\":\"https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2013.25\",\"keywords\":[\"Evolution\",\"Inbreeding\",\"royal inbreeding\",\"Habsburg dynasty\",\"consanguineous marriage\",\"inbreeding depression\",\"purging of inbreeding depression\",\"Biomedicine\",\"general\",\"Human Genetics\",\"Evolutionary Biology\",\"Ecology\",\"Cytogenetics\",\"Plant Genetics and Genomics\"],\"image\":[\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig1_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig2_HTML.jpg\",\"https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fhdy.2013.25/MediaObjects/41437_2013_Article_BFhdy201325_Fig3_HTML.jpg\"],\"isPartOf\":{\"name\":\"Heredity\",\"issn\":[\"1365-2540\",\"0018-067X\"],\"volumeNumber\":\"111\",\"@type\":[\"Periodical\",\"PublicationVolume\"]},\"publisher\":{\"name\":\"Springer International Publishing\",\"logo\":{\"url\":\"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png\",\"@type\":\"ImageObject\"},\"@type\":\"Organization\"},\"author\":[{\"name\":\"F C Ceballos\",\"affiliation\":[{\"name\":\"Faculty of Biology, University of Santiago de Compostela\",\"address\":{\"name\":\"Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain\",\"@type\":\"PostalA" } ], "text_sample": "Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs | Heredity window.dataLayer = [{\"content\":{\"category\":{\"contentType\":\"original article\",\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsPrimaryArticleType\":\"research\",\"webtrendsSubjectTerms\":\"evolution;inbreeding\",\"webtrendsContentCategory\":null,\"webtrendsContentCollection\":null,\"webtrendsContentGroup\":\"Heredity\",\"webtrendsContentGroupType\":null,\"webtrendsContentSubGroup\":\"Original Article\",\"status\":null}},\"article\":{\"doi\":\"10.1038/hdy.2013.25\"},\"attributes\":{\"cms\":null,\"deliveryPlatform\":\"oscar\",\"copyright\":{\"open\":false,\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsLicenceType\":null}},\"articleInPress\":\"false\"},\"contentInfo\":{\"authors\":[\"F C Ceballos\",\"G \u00c1lvarez\"],\"publishedAt\":1365552000,\"publishedAtString\":\"2013-04-10\",\"title\":\"Royal dynasties as human inbreeding laboratories: the Habsburgs\",\"legacy\":null,\"publishedAtTime\":null,\"documentType\":\"aplusplus\",\"subjects\":\"Evolution,Inbreeding\"},\"journal\":{\"pcode\":\"hdy\",\"title\":\"heredity\",\"volume\":\"111\",\"issue\":\"2\",\"id\":41437,\"publishingModel\":\"Hybrid Access\"},\"authorization\":{\"status\":true},\"features\":[{\"name\":\"furtherReadingSection\",\"present\":false}],\"collection\":null},\"page\":{\"category\":{\"pageType\":\"article\"},\"attributes\":{\"template\":\"mosaic\",\"featureFlags\":[{\"name\":\"download-collection-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"download-issue-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"nature-onwards-journey\",\"active\":false}],\"testGroup\":null},\"search\":null},\"privacy\":{},\"version\":\"1.0.0\",\"product\":null,\"session\":null,\"user\":null,\"backHalfContent\":true,\"country\":\"CA\",\"hasBody\":true,\"uneditedManuscript\":false,\"twitterId\":[\"o3xnx\",\"o43y9\",\"o3ef7\"],\"baiduId\":\"d38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea\",\"japan\":false}]; window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-ERRNTNZ807', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-71668177-1', twitterId: ['3xnx', 'o43y9', 'o3ef7'], baiduId: 'd38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://sgtm.nature.com', imprint: 'nature' }); (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); @media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { html{line-" }, "pmc_amniote_chromosomes": { "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4031395/", "final": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4031395/", "status": 200, "title": "Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes - PMC", "file": "source_pmc_amniote_chromosomes.html", "snippets": [ { "term": "Reptilian", "snippet": " large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that have been mapped or sequenced are not necessarily the best representative species for a particular lineage, which could complicate the reconstruction process. Basically, there is no single approach that is able to provide all the answers but it is a matter of aptly using the available data. Here, we review the advancements that have been made in this field using molecular cytogenetics and comparative genomics analysis, highlighting the data missing from key species and suggest approaches that can be taken to rapidly bridge these knowledge gaps. Amniote chromosome numbers Amniotes, which include birds, non-avian reptiles (herein referred to as reptiles) and mammals, last shared a common ancestor approximately 310 MYA. The chromosomes of each of these three major amniote lineages are strikingly different (Fig. 1 ), suggesting that their genomes have been subject to considerable rearrangement since last sharing a common ancestor. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Amniote phylogeny showing haploid karyotypes for representative species. The range of haploid chromosomes numbers for each lineage are indicated on the branches (Christidis 1990 ; Hayman 1990 ; O\u2019Brien et al. 2006 ; Olmo and Signorino 2005 ; Valenzuela and Adams 2011 ). Microchromosomes are indicated in dark grey . The sex chromosomes present in the homogametic sex are shown for representative species and alternatives present in each lineage are indicated. TSD temperature sex determination Karyotypes of birds and most reptiles consist of up to ten pairs of macrochromosomes and a varying number of microchromosomes (Table 1 ). Birds have a particularly large number of microchromosomes. Reptiles are considered to be a karyologically heterogeneous group displaying high diversity in chromosome numbers and morphologies between and among groups (Olmo 2008 ). Among reptiles, crocodilians (Cohen and" }, { "term": "reptilian", "snippet": " large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that have been mapped or sequenced are not necessarily the best representative species for a particular lineage, which could complicate the reconstruction process. Basically, there is no single approach that is able to provide all the answers but it is a matter of aptly using the available data. Here, we review the advancements that have been made in this field using molecular cytogenetics and comparative genomics analysis, highlighting the data missing from key species and suggest approaches that can be taken to rapidly bridge these knowledge gaps. Amniote chromosome numbers Amniotes, which include birds, non-avian reptiles (herein referred to as reptiles) and mammals, last shared a common ancestor approximately 310 MYA. The chromosomes of each of these three major amniote lineages are strikingly different (Fig. 1 ), suggesting that their genomes have been subject to considerable rearrangement since last sharing a common ancestor. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Amniote phylogeny showing haploid karyotypes for representative species. The range of haploid chromosomes numbers for each lineage are indicated on the branches (Christidis 1990 ; Hayman 1990 ; O\u2019Brien et al. 2006 ; Olmo and Signorino 2005 ; Valenzuela and Adams 2011 ). Microchromosomes are indicated in dark grey . The sex chromosomes present in the homogametic sex are shown for representative species and alternatives present in each lineage are indicated. TSD temperature sex determination Karyotypes of birds and most reptiles consist of up to ten pairs of macrochromosomes and a varying number of microchromosomes (Table 1 ). Birds have a particularly large number of microchromosomes. Reptiles are considered to be a karyologically heterogeneous group displaying high diversity in chromosome numbers and morphologies between and among groups (Olmo 2008 ). Among reptiles, crocodilians (Cohen and" }, { "term": "lizard", "snippet": "last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that have been mapped or sequenced are not necessarily the best representative species for a particular lineage, which could complicate the reconstruction process. Basically, there is no single approach that is able to provide all the answers but it is a matter of aptly using the available data. Here, we review the advancements that have been made in this field using molecular cytogenetics and comparative genomics analysis, highlighting the data missing from key species and suggest approaches that can be taken to rapidly bridge these knowledge gaps. Amniote chromosome numbers Amniotes, which include birds, non-avian reptiles (herein referred to as reptiles) and mammals, last shared a common ancestor approximately 310 MYA. The chromosomes of each of these three major amniote lineages are strikingly different (Fig. 1 ), suggesting that their genomes have been subject to considerable rearrangement since last sharing a common ancestor. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Amniote phylogeny showing haploid karyotypes for representative species. The range of haploid chromosomes numbers for each lineage are indicated on the branches (Christidis 1990 ; Hayman 1990 ; O\u2019Brien et al. 2006 ; Olmo and Signorino 2005 ; Valenzuela and Adams 2011 ). Microchromosomes are indicated in dark grey . The sex chromosomes present in the homogametic sex are shown for representative species and alternatives present in each lineage are indicated. TSD temperature sex determination Karyotypes of birds and most reptiles consist of up to ten pairs of macrochromosomes and a varying number of microchromosomes (Table 1 ). Birds have a particularly large number of microchromosomes. Reptiles are considered to be a karyologically heterogeneous group displaying high diversity in chromosome numbers and morphologies between and among groups (Olmo 2008 ). Among reptiles, crocodilians (Cohen and Gans 1970 ; Olmo 2008 ) and turtles (Olmo 2008 ; Olmo and Signorino 2005 ; Valenzuela and Adams 2011 ) have the" }, { "term": "amniote", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Chromosoma . 2014 Mar 25;123(3):201\u2013216. doi: 10.1007/s00412-014-0456-y Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes Janine E Deakin Janine E Deakin 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Janine E Deakin 1, \u2709 , Tariq Ezaz Tariq Ezaz 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Tariq Ezaz 1 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia \u2709 Corresponding author. Received 2013 Dec 20; Revised 2014 Mar 3; Accepted 2014 Mar 4; Issue date 2014. \u00a9 The Author(s) 2014 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC4031395 PMID: 24664317 Abstract A great deal of diversity in chromosome number and arrangement is observed across the amniote phylogeny. Understanding how this diversity is generated is important for determining the role of chromosomal rearrangements in generating phenotypic variation and speciation. Gaining this understanding is achieved by reconstructing the ancestral genome arrangement based on comparisons of genome organization of extant species. Ancestral karyotypes for several amniote lineages have been reconstructed, mainly from cross-s" }, { "term": "reptile", "snippet": "n and speciation. Gaining this understanding is achieved by reconstructing the ancestral genome arrangement based on comparisons of genome organization of extant species. Ancestral karyotypes for several amniote lineages have been reconstructed, mainly from cross-species chromosome painting data. The availability of anchored whole genome sequences for amniote species has increased the evolutionary depth and confidence of ancestral reconstructions from those made solely from chromosome painting data. Nonetheless, there are still several key lineages where the appropriate data required for ancestral reconstructions is lacking. This review highlights the progress that has been made towards understanding the chromosomal changes that have occurred during amniote evolution and the reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes. Keywords: Comparative genomics, Chromosome painting, Ancestral karyotype, Reptile, Bird, Mammal Introduction Chromosomes, the basic units into which DNA is packaged in a nucleus, have undergone changes in gene content and organization throughout evolution. The great diversity of chromosome numbers between different amniote species and even the contrasting division of macro and microchromosomes in most birds and non-avian reptiles presents an opportunity to study chromosome evolution to determine the timing and types of events that shaped the chromosomes of extant amniote species. This involves comparing chromosomes of different species to reconstruct the most likely chromosome arrangement in a common ancestor. Tracing such events can provided great insight into the evolutionary process and even the role chromosomal rearrangements play in phenotypic evolution and speciation. Reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes at various positions along the amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals) phylogenetic tree has been made possible by the large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that ha" }, { "term": "mammal", "snippet": "n. Gaining this understanding is achieved by reconstructing the ancestral genome arrangement based on comparisons of genome organization of extant species. Ancestral karyotypes for several amniote lineages have been reconstructed, mainly from cross-species chromosome painting data. The availability of anchored whole genome sequences for amniote species has increased the evolutionary depth and confidence of ancestral reconstructions from those made solely from chromosome painting data. Nonetheless, there are still several key lineages where the appropriate data required for ancestral reconstructions is lacking. This review highlights the progress that has been made towards understanding the chromosomal changes that have occurred during amniote evolution and the reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes. Keywords: Comparative genomics, Chromosome painting, Ancestral karyotype, Reptile, Bird, Mammal Introduction Chromosomes, the basic units into which DNA is packaged in a nucleus, have undergone changes in gene content and organization throughout evolution. The great diversity of chromosome numbers between different amniote species and even the contrasting division of macro and microchromosomes in most birds and non-avian reptiles presents an opportunity to study chromosome evolution to determine the timing and types of events that shaped the chromosomes of extant amniote species. This involves comparing chromosomes of different species to reconstruct the most likely chromosome arrangement in a common ancestor. Tracing such events can provided great insight into the evolutionary process and even the role chromosomal rearrangements play in phenotypic evolution and speciation. Reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes at various positions along the amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals) phylogenetic tree has been made possible by the large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that have been mapped " }, { "term": "genome", "snippet": "nformation Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia \u2709 Corresponding author. Received 2013 Dec 20; Revised 2014 Mar 3; Accepted 2014 Mar 4; Issue date 2014. \u00a9 The Author(s) 2014 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC4031395 PMID: 24664317 Abstract A great deal of diversity in chromosome number and arrangement is observed across the amniote phylogeny. Understanding how this diversity is generated is important for determining the role of chromosomal rearrangements in generating phenotypic variation and speciation. Gaining this understanding is achieved by reconstructing the ancestral genome arrangement based on comparisons of genome organization of extant species. Ancestral karyotypes for several amniote lineages have been reconstructed, mainly from cross-species chromosome painting data. The availability of anchored whole genome sequences for amniote species has increased the evolutionary depth and confidence of ancestral reconstructions from those made solely from chromosome painting data. Nonetheless, there are still several key lineages where the appropriate data required for ancestral reconstructions is lacking. This review highlights the progress that has been made towards understanding the chromosomal changes that have occurred during amniote evolution and the reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes. Keywords: Comparative genomics, Chromosome painting, Ancestral karyotype, Reptile, Bird, Mammal Introduction Chromosomes, the basic units into which DNA is packaged in a nucleus, have undergone changes in gene content and organization throughout evolution. The great diversity of chromosome numbers between different amniote species and even the contrasting division of macro and microchromosomes in most birds and non-avian reptiles presents an opportunity to study chromosome evolution to determine the timing and types of events that shaped the chromosomes of extant amniote species. This involves comparing chromosomes of different species to reconstruct the most likely chromosome arrangement in a common ancestor. Tracing such events can provided great insight into the evolutionary process and even the role chromosomal rearrangements play in phenotypic evolution and speciation. Reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes at various positions along the amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals) phylogenetic tree has been made possible by the large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral ka" }, { "term": "chromosome", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search\u2026 Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Chromosoma . 2014 Mar 25;123(3):201\u2013216. doi: 10.1007/s00412-014-0456-y Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes Janine E Deakin Janine E Deakin 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Janine E Deakin 1, \u2709 , Tariq Ezaz Tariq Ezaz 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Tariq Ezaz 1 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia \u2709 Corresponding author. Received 2013 Dec 20; Revised 2014 Mar 3; Accepted 2014 Mar 4; Issue date 2014. \u00a9 The Author(s) 2014 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC4031395 PMID: 24664317 Abstract A great deal of diversity in chromosome number and arrangement is observed across the amniote phylogeny. Understanding how this diversity is generated is important for determining the role of chromosomal rearrangements in generating phenotypic variation and speciation. Gaining this understanding is achieved by reconstructing the ancestral genome arrangement based on comparisons of genome organization of extant species. Ancestral karyotypes for several amniote lineages have been reconstructed, mainly from cross-species c" }, { "term": "common ancestor", "snippet": "ng. This review highlights the progress that has been made towards understanding the chromosomal changes that have occurred during amniote evolution and the reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes. Keywords: Comparative genomics, Chromosome painting, Ancestral karyotype, Reptile, Bird, Mammal Introduction Chromosomes, the basic units into which DNA is packaged in a nucleus, have undergone changes in gene content and organization throughout evolution. The great diversity of chromosome numbers between different amniote species and even the contrasting division of macro and microchromosomes in most birds and non-avian reptiles presents an opportunity to study chromosome evolution to determine the timing and types of events that shaped the chromosomes of extant amniote species. This involves comparing chromosomes of different species to reconstruct the most likely chromosome arrangement in a common ancestor. Tracing such events can provided great insight into the evolutionary process and even the role chromosomal rearrangements play in phenotypic evolution and speciation. Reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes at various positions along the amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals) phylogenetic tree has been made possible by the large number of cross-species chromosome painting and gene mapping studies that have been carried out over the last 20 years, and more recently from the availability of sequenced and anchored genomes. Reconstructions based on cross-species chromosome painting data provide the most basic ancestral plan, only permitting the arrangement of relatively large-scale evolutionary events to be traced. The limits of detection of chromosome painting also govern the evolutionary depth to which the reconstruction can be applied. For instance, chromosome paints generated from eutherian species (e.g. humans) fail to detect homology with marsupial or monotreme chromosomes (Graphodatsky et al. 2012 ) and therefore, ancestral karyotype reconstructions based solely on eutherian chromosome painting data are restricted to the eutherian lineage. Interestingly, a greater evolutionary depth is possible in the reptilian lineage, with chromosome probes derived from chicken able to detect homology to crocodile, turtle and lizard species (Kasai et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2012 ; Pokorna et al. 2011 ), which last shared a common ancestor over 200 million years ago (MYA). Combining chromosome painting data with gene mapping or whole genome data permits reconstructions over greater evolutionary time, enabling the evolutionary events that have occurred across amniotes to be determined. However, at this stage, there are only a limited number of species for which the appropriate detailed data is available. In addition, the species that have been mapped or sequenced are not necessarily the best representative species for a particular lineage, which could complicate the reconstruction process. Basically, there is no single approach that is able to provide all the answers but it is a matter of aptly using the available data. Here, we review the advancements that have been made in this field using molecular cytogenetics and comparative genomics analysis, highlighting the data missing from key species and suggest approaches that can be taken to rapidly bridge these knowledge gaps. Amniote chromosome numbers Amniotes, which include birds, non-avian reptiles (he" } ], "text_sample": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search\u2026 Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Chromosoma . 2014 Mar 25;123(3):201\u2013216. doi: 10.1007/s00412-014-0456-y Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Tracing the evolution of amniote chromosomes Janine E Deakin Janine E Deakin 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Janine E Deakin 1, \u2709 , Tariq Ezaz Tariq Ezaz 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia Find articles by Tariq Ezaz 1 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, 2601 Australia \u2709 Corresponding author. Received 2013 Dec 20; Revised 2014 Mar 3; Accepted 2014 Mar 4; Issue date 2014. \u00a9 The Author(s) 2014 Open Access This " }, "pmc_nonavian_reptiles": { "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1815256/", "final": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1815256/", "status": 200, "title": "Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome - PMC", "file": "source_pmc_nonavian_reptiles.html", "snippets": [ { "term": "Reptilian", "snippet": "ents are defective because of extensive 5\u2032 truncation, a common feature of the vast majority of CR1s observed in vertebrate genomes ( 19 ). Nonetheless, we estimate that from \u224810% to 26% of the difference in genome size between birds and other reptiles derives from loss of transposable elements in birds. These results also suggest a persistence of active reptile MIRs in these lineages or their immediate ancestors and are consistent with conserved CORE SINEs giving rise to a diversity of MIR-like elements among vertebrates that have survived >550 Myr of eukaryotic genome evolution ( 20 ). By contrast, such persistence is not apparent in the chicken genome, which apparently has lost most of these elements from nonavian ancestors. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Summary of interspersed and tandem repeats in nonavian reptiles. ( a ) Estimated copy number per genome of repetitive elements for four reptilian species. Estimates with error bars are based on RepeatMasker ( 37 ) queries against the chicken and primate database, summarized in SI Table 1 . Error bars are 95% confidence intervals for the entire genome. Copy numbers for chicken are taken from published whole-genome assembly results ( 5 ) and targeted hybridization studies of avian microsatellites ( 23 ). DNA TE, DNA transposable element. ( b ) Histogram of frequencies of total tandem repeat array lengths, measured in base pairs, for the same sequence data examined in a . Details of repeat detection and analysis are presented in Materials and Methods and SI Text . Using both Bayesian and distance methods, we evaluated the relationship between host species and CR1 element diversity by phylogenetic analysis of aligned 3\u2032 terminal regions of 308 reptilian LINEs, including published avian CR1 subfamily sequences for chicken and other birds, and the tortoise psCR1 element ( Fig. 2 ). In both analyses, although divergences among elements were too great to resolve relationships of many of the basal nodes in the CR1 tree, a number of well supported nodes were obtained at intermediate and shallow levels of divergence ( Fig. 2 b ). Published sequences for CR1 avian subfamilies (A-E, emu, crane) and tortoise psCR1 sequences were taken from refs. 15 and 19 and clustered with chicken and turtle BAC-end sequences, respectively. The degree to which our gene tree of >300 elements reflect species phylogeny can be evaluated in terms of the degree of host-specific association among the four reptile species represented. CR1 clades represented by a single host species can be considered more evolutionarily distinct than clades that contain representatives of multiple species; in turn, reptile lineages with high CR1 specificity are likely phylogenetically divergent ( 21 ). We tested the significance of this specificity by constructing a null hypothesis for the extent of host species character change given our sampling by using a randomization test ( 22 ). The test indicated a highly significant level of clustering of CR1s by species (46 observed host changes vs. an expected mean of 157 \u00b1 0.0216; P < 0.001). The frequency of species representation in nonoverlapping clades is summarized in Fig. 2 c and indicates the greatest extent of CR1 lineage sharing occurs between alligator and turtle elements, followed by alligator\u2013turtle\u2013chicken combinations. By contrast, most Anolis CR1 lineages are phylogenetically distinct," }, { "term": "reptilian", "snippet": "ents are defective because of extensive 5\u2032 truncation, a common feature of the vast majority of CR1s observed in vertebrate genomes ( 19 ). Nonetheless, we estimate that from \u224810% to 26% of the difference in genome size between birds and other reptiles derives from loss of transposable elements in birds. These results also suggest a persistence of active reptile MIRs in these lineages or their immediate ancestors and are consistent with conserved CORE SINEs giving rise to a diversity of MIR-like elements among vertebrates that have survived >550 Myr of eukaryotic genome evolution ( 20 ). By contrast, such persistence is not apparent in the chicken genome, which apparently has lost most of these elements from nonavian ancestors. Fig. 1. Open in a new tab Summary of interspersed and tandem repeats in nonavian reptiles. ( a ) Estimated copy number per genome of repetitive elements for four reptilian species. Estimates with error bars are based on RepeatMasker ( 37 ) queries against the chicken and primate database, summarized in SI Table 1 . Error bars are 95% confidence intervals for the entire genome. Copy numbers for chicken are taken from published whole-genome assembly results ( 5 ) and targeted hybridization studies of avian microsatellites ( 23 ). DNA TE, DNA transposable element. ( b ) Histogram of frequencies of total tandem repeat array lengths, measured in base pairs, for the same sequence data examined in a . Details of repeat detection and analysis are presented in Materials and Methods and SI Text . Using both Bayesian and distance methods, we evaluated the relationship between host species and CR1 element diversity by phylogenetic analysis of aligned 3\u2032 terminal regions of 308 reptilian LINEs, including published avian CR1 subfamily sequences for chicken and other birds, and the tortoise psCR1 element ( Fig. 2 ). In both analyses, although divergences among elements were too great to resolve relationships of many of the basal nodes in the CR1 tree, a number of well supported nodes were obtained at intermediate and shallow levels of divergence ( Fig. 2 b ). Published sequences for CR1 avian subfamilies (A-E, emu, crane) and tortoise psCR1 sequences were taken from refs. 15 and 19 and clustered with chicken and turtle BAC-end sequences, respectively. The degree to which our gene tree of >300 elements reflect species phylogeny can be evaluated in terms of the degree of host-specific association among the four reptile species represented. CR1 clades represented by a single host species can be considered more evolutionarily distinct than clades that contain representatives of multiple species; in turn, reptile lineages with high CR1 specificity are likely phylogenetically divergent ( 21 ). We tested the significance of this specificity by constructing a null hypothesis for the extent of host species character change given our sampling by using a randomization test ( 22 ). The test indicated a highly significant level of clustering of CR1s by species (46 observed host changes vs. an expected mean of 157 \u00b1 0.0216; P < 0.001). The frequency of species representation in nonoverlapping clades is summarized in Fig. 2 c and indicates the greatest extent of CR1 lineage sharing occurs between alligator and turtle elements, followed by alligator\u2013turtle\u2013chicken combinations. By contrast, most Anolis CR1 lineages are phylogenetically distinct," }, { "term": "lizard", "snippet": "y and Molecular Biology, Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602. \u2020\u2020 Present address: J. Craig Venter Institute Joint Technology Center, 5 Research Place, Rockville, MD 20850. Edited by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, and approved December 26, 2006 Author contributions: A.M.S., J.S.L., P.J.D., and S.V.E. designed research; A.M.S., C.W.B., S.Z., and J.U.S. performed research; A.M.S., C.W.B., T.Z., J.S.L., P.J.D., and S.V.E. analyzed data; and A.M.S. and S.V.E. wrote the paper. Received 2006 Jul 24; Issue date 2007 Feb 20. \u00a9 2007 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC1815256 PMID: 17307883 Abstract We report results of a megabase-scale phylogenomic analysis of the Reptilia, the sister group of mammals. Large-scale end-sequence scanning of genomic clones of a turtle, alligator, and lizard reveals diverse, mammal-like landscapes of retroelements and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) not found in the chicken. Several global genomic traits, including distinctive phylogenetic lineages of CR1-like long interspersed elements (LINEs) and a paucity of A-T rich SSRs, characterize turtles and archosaur genomes, whereas higher frequencies of tandem repeats and a lower global GC content reveal mammal-like features in Anolis . Nonavian reptile genomes also possess a high frequency of diverse and novel 50-bp unit tandem duplications not found in chicken or mammals. The frequency distributions of \u224865,000 8-mer oligonucleotides suggest that rates of DNA-word frequency change are an order of magnitude slower in reptiles than in mammals. These results suggest a diverse array of interspersed and SSRs in the common ancestor of amniotes and a genomic conservatism and gradual loss of retroelements in reptiles that culminated in the minimalist chicken genome. Keywords: BAC, Reptilia, retroelement, isochore, intron Comparative genomics is a central focus of modern biology in part because it facilitates the understanding of principles of genome evolution ( 1 \u2013 3 ). However, it is impractical to expect taxonomically broad comparative studies to proceed rapidly for nonmodel organisms on a whole-genome basis. A prime example of our limited understanding from the present handful of complete genomes is that we still do not know the sequence of genomic events that led to the structural diversity seen in mammalian genomes and those of their sister group, the Reptilia, which includes birds ( 4 ). The draft chicken genome ( 5 ) substantially increases our understanding of amniote comparative genomics, but evolutionary interpretation relying solely on chicken\u2013mammal contrasts will remain difficult without new data for phylogenetically intermediate lineages. On the one hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a small genome as in extant birds, with mammals and nonavian reptiles independently acquiring transposable elements that resulted in genome size increases in these two lineages. On the other hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a large, repeat-rich genome as in extant mammals, with multiple sequential reductions in retroelement abundance occurring in the lineages leading to the smaller genomes of nonavian reptiles and birds ( 6 ). A third scenario might include a combination of both independent gains and reductions of specific genomic elements. Here w" }, { "term": "amniote", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2007 Feb 16;104(8):2767\u20132772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0606204104 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome Andrew M Shedlock Andrew M Shedlock \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; Find articles by Andrew M Shedlock \u2020, \u2021 , Christopher W Botka Christopher W Botka \u00a7 Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA 02215; Find articles by Christopher W Botka \u00a7 , Shaying Zhao Shaying Zhao \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Shaying Zhao \u00b6, \u2016 , Jyoti Shetty Jyoti Shetty \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Jyoti Shetty \u00b6, \u2020\u2020 , Tingting Zhang Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 , Jun S Liu Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 , Patrick J Deschavanne Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 Equipe de Bioinformatique Genomique et Moleculaire, Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale (INSERM), 2 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France Find articles by Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 , Scott V Edwards Scott V Edwards \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolu" }, { "term": "reptile", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2007 Feb 16;104(8):2767\u20132772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0606204104 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome Andrew M Shedlock Andrew M Shedlock \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; Find articles by Andrew M Shedlock \u2020, \u2021 , Christopher W Botka Christopher W Botka \u00a7 Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA 02215; Find articles by Christopher W Botka \u00a7 , Shaying Zhao Shaying Zhao \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Shaying Zhao \u00b6, \u2016 , Jyoti Shetty Jyoti Shetty \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Jyoti Shetty \u00b6, \u2020\u2020 , Tingting Zhang Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 , Jun S Liu Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 , Patrick J Deschavanne Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 Equipe de Bioinformatique Genomique et Moleculaire, Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale (INSERM), 2 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France Find articles by Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 , Scott V Edwards Scott V " }, { "term": "mammal", "snippet": " addressed. E-mail: shedlock@oeb.harvard.edu \u2016 Present address: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602. \u2020\u2020 Present address: J. Craig Venter Institute Joint Technology Center, 5 Research Place, Rockville, MD 20850. Edited by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, and approved December 26, 2006 Author contributions: A.M.S., J.S.L., P.J.D., and S.V.E. designed research; A.M.S., C.W.B., S.Z., and J.U.S. performed research; A.M.S., C.W.B., T.Z., J.S.L., P.J.D., and S.V.E. analyzed data; and A.M.S. and S.V.E. wrote the paper. Received 2006 Jul 24; Issue date 2007 Feb 20. \u00a9 2007 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC1815256 PMID: 17307883 Abstract We report results of a megabase-scale phylogenomic analysis of the Reptilia, the sister group of mammals. Large-scale end-sequence scanning of genomic clones of a turtle, alligator, and lizard reveals diverse, mammal-like landscapes of retroelements and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) not found in the chicken. Several global genomic traits, including distinctive phylogenetic lineages of CR1-like long interspersed elements (LINEs) and a paucity of A-T rich SSRs, characterize turtles and archosaur genomes, whereas higher frequencies of tandem repeats and a lower global GC content reveal mammal-like features in Anolis . Nonavian reptile genomes also possess a high frequency of diverse and novel 50-bp unit tandem duplications not found in chicken or mammals. The frequency distributions of \u224865,000 8-mer oligonucleotides suggest that rates of DNA-word frequency change are an order of magnitude slower in reptiles than in mammals. These results suggest a diverse array of interspersed and SSRs in the common ancestor of amniotes and a genomic conservatism and gradual loss of retroelements in reptiles that culminated in the minimalist chicken genome. Keywords: BAC, Reptilia, retroelement, isochore, intron Comparative genomics is a central focus of modern biology in part because it facilitates the understanding of principles of genome evolution ( 1 \u2013 3 ). However, it is impractical to expect taxonomically broad comparative studies to proceed rapidly for nonmodel organisms on a whole-genome basis. A prime example of our limited understanding from the present handful of complete genomes is that we still do not know the sequence of genomic events that led to the structural diversity seen in mammalian genomes and those of their sister group, the Reptilia, which includes birds ( 4 ). The draft chicken genome ( 5 ) substantially increases our understanding of amniote comparative genomics, but evolutionary interpretation relying solely on chicken\u2013mammal contrasts will remain difficult without new data for phylogenetically intermediate lineages. On the one hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a small genome as in extant birds, with mammals and nonavian reptiles independently acquiring transposable elements that resulted in genome size increases in these two lineages. On the other hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a large, repeat-rich genome as in extant mammals, with multiple sequential reductions in retroelement abundance occurring in the lineages leading to the smaller genomes of nonavian reptiles and birds ( 6 ). A third scenario might include a " }, { "term": "genome", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search\u2026 Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2007 Feb 16;104(8):2767\u20132772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0606204104 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome Andrew M Shedlock Andrew M Shedlock \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; Find articles by Andrew M Shedlock \u2020, \u2021 , Christopher W Botka Christopher W Botka \u00a7 Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA 02215; Find articles by Christopher W Botka \u00a7 , Shaying Zhao Shaying Zhao \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Shaying Zhao \u00b6, \u2016 , Jyoti Shetty Jyoti Shetty \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850; Find articles by Jyoti Shetty \u00b6, \u2020\u2020 , Tingting Zhang Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Tingting Zhang \u2021\u2021 , Jun S Liu Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 Department of Statistics, Harvard University, 1 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; and Find articles by Jun S Liu \u2021\u2021 , Patrick J Deschavanne Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 Equipe de Bioinformatique Genomique et Moleculaire, Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale (INSERM), 2 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France Find articles by Patrick J Deschavanne \u00a7\u00a7 , Scott V Edwards Scott V Edwards \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary " }, { "term": "chromosome", "snippet": "es of nonavian reptiles and birds ( 6 ). A third scenario might include a combination of both independent gains and reductions of specific genomic elements. Here we use a BAC- and plasmid-end sequencing approach in exemplars of three major nonavian reptile lineages, American Alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ), Painted Turtle ( Chrysemys picta ), and the Bahamian Green Anole ( Anolis smaragdinus ), to better characterize the sequence of genomic changes underlying the diversification of amniote genomes. Little is known about the large-scale structure of nonavian reptile genomes at the sequence level. Alligator and turtle genome sizes are \u224830% smaller than human, \u224850% larger than chicken, and only \u224812% larger than Anolis , whose genome size is close to the mean for nonavian reptiles. Unlike alligator genomes, the anole, painted turtle, and chicken contain a significant number of microchromosomes ( 7 ), which we expect would be gene rich as reported for chickens ( 8 ) and the soft-shelled turtle ( 9 ). In general, it is unknown how the macrochromosomes of reptiles differ from those of mammals ( 10 ) and those of the nonavian reptiles investigated here. The turtle and alligator species investigated here have environmental as opposed to genetic sex determination, and sex determination in Anolis is inferred to be genetic based on some karyological evidence ( 11 ). Several retroelement lineages have been characterized in turtles and other reptiles ( 12 \u2013 15 ). Projects in progress will produce genome sequences for another bird, the Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata , and a lizard, Anolis carolinensis . In the meantime, our goal in this project was to quickly amass a moderate database of primary sequence distributed throughout the genomes of genomically understudied lineages, which can reveal numerous genomewide trends that help characterize the most fundamental aspects of genome structure. Although the genomes we have investigated may not reflect specific changes in subclades of diverse groups such as squamates, any shortcomings of our limited taxonomic sampling are overcome by our ability to present a broad-brush window on genomic trends for nonavian reptiles, thereby quickly placing the chicken and mammal genomes in broader context. Results and Discussion Genome Scans and Global GC Content. Our survey includes edited, high-quality sequence reads covering 2,519,551 bp from American Alligator, 2,432,811 bp from Painted Turtle, and 1,358,158 bp from the Bahamian Green Anole, derived from a total of 8,638 nonoverlapping paired BAC- and plasmid-end reads (see supporting information (SI) Text and Dataset 1 for details of sequence generation and GenBank accession numbers). Using a base composition model allowing for an inhomogeneous distribution of GC content among sequence reads, the estimated GC content ( SI Fig. 5 ) for alligator and turtle agrees closely with estimates for these species based on buoyant density gradients and flow cytometry ( 16 , 17 ). There are no previously published estimates of Anolis genomewide GC content; our results are slightly lower than those reported for other lacertid lizards and in close agreement with estimates for viperid and colubrid snakes ( 16 , 17 ). Alligator, turtle, and Anolis GC means are significantly higher than those for whole human and chicken genomes ( 5 , 10 ) and for in silico sampling of chicken" }, { "term": "common ancestor", "snippet": "Large-scale end-sequence scanning of genomic clones of a turtle, alligator, and lizard reveals diverse, mammal-like landscapes of retroelements and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) not found in the chicken. Several global genomic traits, including distinctive phylogenetic lineages of CR1-like long interspersed elements (LINEs) and a paucity of A-T rich SSRs, characterize turtles and archosaur genomes, whereas higher frequencies of tandem repeats and a lower global GC content reveal mammal-like features in Anolis . Nonavian reptile genomes also possess a high frequency of diverse and novel 50-bp unit tandem duplications not found in chicken or mammals. The frequency distributions of \u224865,000 8-mer oligonucleotides suggest that rates of DNA-word frequency change are an order of magnitude slower in reptiles than in mammals. These results suggest a diverse array of interspersed and SSRs in the common ancestor of amniotes and a genomic conservatism and gradual loss of retroelements in reptiles that culminated in the minimalist chicken genome. Keywords: BAC, Reptilia, retroelement, isochore, intron Comparative genomics is a central focus of modern biology in part because it facilitates the understanding of principles of genome evolution ( 1 \u2013 3 ). However, it is impractical to expect taxonomically broad comparative studies to proceed rapidly for nonmodel organisms on a whole-genome basis. A prime example of our limited understanding from the present handful of complete genomes is that we still do not know the sequence of genomic events that led to the structural diversity seen in mammalian genomes and those of their sister group, the Reptilia, which includes birds ( 4 ). The draft chicken genome ( 5 ) substantially increases our understanding of amniote comparative genomics, but evolutionary interpretation relying solely on chicken\u2013mammal contrasts will remain difficult without new data for phylogenetically intermediate lineages. On the one hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a small genome as in extant birds, with mammals and nonavian reptiles independently acquiring transposable elements that resulted in genome size increases in these two lineages. On the other hand, the common amniote ancestor may have had a large, repeat-rich genome as in extant mammals, with multiple sequential reductions in retroelement abundance occurring in the lineages leading to the smaller genomes of nonavian reptiles and birds ( 6 ). A third scenario might include a combination of both independent gains and reductions of specific genomic elements. Here we use a BAC- and plasmid-end sequencing approach in exemplars of three major nonavian reptile lineages, American Alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ), Painted Turtle ( Chrysemys picta ), and the Bahamian Green Anole ( Anolis smaragdinus ), to better characterize the sequence of genomic changes underlying the diversification of amniote genomes. Little is known about the large-scale structure of nonavian reptile genomes at the sequence level. Alligator and turtle genome sizes are \u224830% smaller than human, \u224850% larger than chicken, and only \u224812% larger than Anolis , whose genome size is close to the mean for nonavian reptiles. Unlike alligator genomes, the anole, painted turtle, and chicken contain a significant number of microchromosomes ( 7 ), which we expect would be gene rich as reported for chickens ( 8 " } ], "text_sample": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Search Log in Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Search\u2026 Search NCBI Primary site navigation Search Logged in as: Dashboard Publications Account settings Log in Search PMC Full-Text Archive Search in PMC Journal List User Guide PERMALINK Copy As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2007 Feb 16;104(8):2767\u20132772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0606204104 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Phylogenomics of nonavian reptiles and the structure of the ancestral amniote genome Andrew M Shedlock Andrew M Shedlock \u2020 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138; Find articles by Andrew M Shedlock \u2020, \u2021 , Christopher W Botka Christopher W Botka \u00a7 Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA 02215; Find articles by Christopher W Botka \u00a7 , Shaying Zhao Shaying Zhao \u00b6 The Institute for Genomic Research, 9712 Medical C" }, "nature_conspiracy_correlates": { "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-25617-0", "final": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-25617-0", "status": 200, "title": "The psychological and political correlates of conspiracy theory beliefs | Scientific Reports", "file": "source_nature_conspiracy_correlates.html", "snippets": [ { "term": "coefficient", "snippet": "ent correlations for conspiracy theory questions that utilize ordinal response options and point-biserial correlations for those that employ dichotomous response options; see supplementary information for details). We examine distributions of these correlations by characteristic, paying particular attention to the mean and standard deviation, as well as the proportion of instances in which the correlations are statistically distinguishable from 0 at p < 0.05 (using Benjamini\u2013Hochberg to estimate the false discovery rate across many tests). By examining distributions of correlations across a wide variety of conspiracy theory beliefs, we can better understand the extent to which such correlations fluctuate in magnitude, direction, and statistical significance as the details of the specific conspiracy theories in question vary. We also bolster this analysis by examining the distribution of coefficients from regressions of each conspiracy belief on the full set of individual-level characteristics. Second, we examine correlations between each of the 15 identified correlates and our measure of generalized conspiracy thinking, the ACTS. We pay particular attention to the extent to which these patterns reflect those in our first analysis: do the correlations with the general predisposition tend to mimic the average correlations across a wide range of specific beliefs? Ethics Survey protocol was approved by the University of Miami Institutional Review Board (Protocol ##20210244). Survey respondents provided informed consent and could leave the survey at any time. All relevant regulations were followed in performing this research. Results Figure 1 displays the distribution of correlations between each of the 15 characteristics and the 39 conspiracy theory beliefs we employ. In each panel, we include the mean and standard deviation of the distribution, as well as the percentage of the 39 cases where the correlation is statistically distinguishable from 0 at p < 0.05. Several patterns emerge. Figure 1 Full size image Distribution of correlation coefficients, by psychological and political correlates, across all conspiracy theory beliefs. Mean, standard deviation, and percentage of cases where correlation was statistically significant ( p < 0.05) appears in text. p -values corrected for multiple comparisons via the Benjamini\u2013Hochberg procedure. First, the average correlation with our measure of conspiracy thinking (the ACTS), 0.44, is nearly double that of the next largest average correlation, 0.27, which is associated with spreading false information online (though this correlation is significant across 95% of conspiracy theory beliefs, compared to 100% for the ACTS). This makes theoretical sense and showcases the validity and practical utility of measures of conspiracy thinking such as the ACTS. For the dark triad traits, we observe distributions of mostly positive correlations with small standard deviations; Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, are statistically significant correlates of 92%, 87%, and 92% of our conspiracy theory beliefs, respectively. Results are similar for non-partisan/ideological political attitudes, particularly populism, Manicheanism, and support for political violence. These attitudes are significant in 97\u2013100% of cases with relatively strong mean correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.25. The exception is trust in go" }, { "term": "conspiracy", "snippet": "The psychological and political correlates of conspiracy theory beliefs | Scientific Reports window.dataLayer = [{\"content\":{\"category\":{\"contentType\":\"article\",\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsPrimaryArticleType\":\"research\",\"webtrendsSubjectTerms\":\"human-behaviour;psychology\",\"webtrendsContentCategory\":null,\"webtrendsContentCollection\":\"The psychology of conspiracy and misinformation beliefs\",\"webtrendsContentGroup\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"webtrendsContentGroupType\":null,\"webtrendsContentSubGroup\":\"Article\",\"status\":null}},\"article\":{\"doi\":\"10.1038/s41598-022-25617-0\"},\"attributes\":{\"cms\":null,\"deliveryPlatform\":\"oscar\",\"copyright\":{\"open\":true,\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsLicenceType\":\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"}},\"articleInPress\":\"false\"},\"contentInfo\":{\"authors\":[\"Joseph Uscinski\",\"Adam Enders\",\"Amanda Diekman\",\"John Funchion\",\"Casey Klofstad\",\"Sandra Kuebler\",\"Manohar Murthi\",\"Kamal Premaratne\",\"Michelle Seelig\",\"Daniel Verdear\",\"Stefan Wuchty\"],\"publishedAt\":1671062400,\"publishedAtString\":\"2022-12-15\",\"title\":\"The psychological and political correlates of conspiracy theory beliefs\",\"legacy\":null,\"publishedAtTime\":null,\"documentType\":\"aplusplus\",\"subjects\":\"Human behaviour,Psychology\"},\"journal\":{\"pcode\":\"srep\",\"title\":\"scientific reports\",\"volume\":\"12\",\"issue\":\"1\",\"id\":41598,\"publishingModel\":\"Open Access\"},\"authorization\":{\"status\":true},\"features\":[{\"name\":\"furtherReadingSection\",\"present\":false}],\"collection\":{\"id\":\"gacjbiajjg\"}},\"page\":{\"category\":{\"pageType\":\"article\"},\"attributes\":{\"template\":\"mosaic\",\"featureFlags\":[{\"name\":\"download-collection-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"download-issue-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"nature-onwards-journey\",\"active\":false}],\"testGroup\":null},\"search\":null},\"privacy\":{},\"version\":\"1.0.0\",\"product\":null,\"session\":null,\"user\":null,\"backHalfContent\":true,\"country\":\"CA\",\"hasBody\":true,\"uneditedManuscript\":false,\"twitterId\":[\"o3xnx\",\"o43y9\",\"o3ef7\"],\"baiduId\":\"d38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea\",\"japan\":false}]; 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Think. Reason. 27 , 187\u2013211. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2020.1759688 (2021). Article Google Scholar Binnendyk, J. & Pennycook, G. Intuition, reason, and conspiracy beliefs. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 47 , 101387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101387 (2022). Article PubMed Google Scholar Dean, C. E. et al. Paranormal beliefs and cognitive function: A systematic review and assessment of study quality across four decades of research. PLoS ONE 17 , 1\u201331. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267360 (2022). Article CAS Google Scholar Lindeman, M. & Aarnio, K. Paranormal beliefs: Their dimensionality and correlates. Eur. J. Pers. 20 , 585\u2013602. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.608 (2006). Article Google Scholar Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Callan, M. J., Dawtry, R. J. & Harvey, A. J. Someone is pulling the strings: Hypersensitive agency detection and belief in conspiracy theories. Think. Reason. 22 , 57\u201377. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2015.1051586 (2016). 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Sometimes inclusion breeds suspicion: Self-uncertainty and belongingness predict belief in conspiracy theories. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 46 , 267\u2013279. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2157 (2016). Article Google Scholar Foster, K. R. & Kokko, H. The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 276 , 31\u201337. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.0981 (2009). Article Google Scholar Zhao, J., Hahn, U. & Osherson, D. Perception and identification of random events. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 40 , 1358 (2014). Article PubMed Google Scholar Blackmore, S. & Tro\u015bcianko, T. Belief in the paranormal: Probability judgements, illusory control, and the \u2018chance baseline shift\u2019. Br. J. Psychol. 76 , 459\u2013468. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1985.tb01969.x (1985). Article Google Scholar Bressan, P. The connection between random sequences, everyday coincidences, and belief in the paranormal. Appl. Cogn. 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Connecting the " }, { "term": "paranormal", "snippet": "Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory | Scientific Reports window.dataLayer = [{\"content\":{\"category\":{\"contentType\":\"article\",\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsPrimaryArticleType\":\"research\",\"webtrendsSubjectTerms\":\"human-behaviour;psychology\",\"webtrendsContentCategory\":null,\"webtrendsContentCollection\":null,\"webtrendsContentGroup\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"webtrendsContentGroupType\":null,\"webtrendsContentSubGroup\":\"Article\",\"status\":null}},\"article\":{\"doi\":\"10.1038/s41598-023-36230-0\"},\"attributes\":{\"cms\":null,\"deliveryPlatform\":\"oscar\",\"copyright\":{\"open\":true,\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsLicenceType\":\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"}},\"articleInPress\":\"false\"},\"contentInfo\":{\"authors\":[\"Petra M\u00fcller\",\"Matthias Hartmann\"],\"publishedAt\":1686873600,\"publishedAtString\":\"2023-06-16\",\"title\":\"Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory\",\"legacy\":null,\"publishedAtTime\":null,\"documentType\":\"aplusplus\",\"subjects\":\"Human behaviour,Psychology\"},\"journal\":{\"pcode\":\"srep\",\"title\":\"scientific reports\",\"volume\":\"13\",\"issue\":\"1\",\"id\":41598,\"publishingModel\":\"Open Access\"},\"authorization\":{\"status\":true},\"features\":[{\"name\":\"furtherReadingSection\",\"present\":false}],\"collection\":null},\"page\":{\"category\":{\"pageType\":\"article\"},\"attributes\":{\"template\":\"mosaic\",\"featureFlags\":[{\"name\":\"download-collection-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"download-issue-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"nature-onwards-journey\",\"active\":false}],\"testGroup\":null},\"search\":null},\"privacy\":{},\"version\":\"1.0.0\",\"product\":null,\"session\":null,\"user\":null,\"backHalfContent\":true,\"country\":\"CA\",\"hasBody\":true,\"uneditedManuscript\":false,\"twitterId\":[\"o3xnx\",\"o43y9\",\"o3ef7\"],\"baiduId\":\"d38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea\",\"japan\":false}]; window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-ERRNTNZ807', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-71668177-1', twitterId: ['3xnx', 'o43y9', 'o3ef7'], baiduId: 'd38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://sgtm.nature.com', imprint: 'nature' }); (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); @media only print," }, { "term": "political", "snippet": "500933, embedded_user: 'null' } }); Introduction Irrational and unwarranted beliefs are widespread in human societies 1 , 2 and have been a topic of scientific inquiry for decades. Of particular interest are paranormal beliefs and conspiracy theory endorsement, which are characterized by the acceptance of unproven or unfalsifiable claims that challenge mainstream knowledge and scientific evidence. This area of study has gained increasing attention, as the prevalence of such beliefs\u2014especially beliefs in conspiracy theories\u2014in modern society has become a cause for concern, for example in the context of the global 2020 COVID-19 pandemic 3 , 4 . Conspiracy theories are commonly defined as the belief that important events are caused by secret plots of powerful evil individuals or groups 5 and may have serious consequences, not just for public health 6 , but also for social coexistence 2 and political participation 7 . Believers in the paranormal believe in phenomena that violate the scientifically founded principles of nature, such as beliefs in ghosts, magic, supernatural powers, entities or energies 8 and paranormal beliefs as well may not always be benign 9 . Although seemingly disparate, conspiracy and paranormal beliefs are suspected to have common underlying mechanisms as they are frequently found to be correlated 10 , 11 , 12 . Studies have suggested that a more intuitive and less analytical thinking style is associated with both conspiracy theory endorsement (for an overview, see Binnendyk and Pennycook 13 ) as well as paranormal beliefs 14 , 15 . Another mechanism that seemingly underlies both paranormal beliefs and belief in conspiracy theories manifests in a misperception of chance and randomness, that is a heightened tendency to perceive random stimuli as non-random, for example by attributing agency where it does not exist (conspiracy beliefs 16 ; paranormal beliefs 17 ) or being susceptible to the Conjunction Fallacy (conspiracy beliefs 18 , 19 ; paranormal beliefs 20 ). Illusory pattern perception, the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns or connections in random or ambiguous stimuli, is also suspected to be an underlying factor linked to irrational beliefs 21 . Illusory pattern perception is assumed to be a side effect of the human inclination to perceive patterns to make sense of the world 22 , 23 . The relationship between paranormal beliefs in particular and the illusory pattern perception in random sequences has been demonstrated frequently 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 and can also be observed in visual pattern detection tasks such as face or object detection 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 and image categorization 32 . The link between illusory pattern perception and conspiracy theory endorsement has been tested less extensively, but findings suggest they might be connected in a similar fashion 28 , 29 , although conflicting findings exist 19 . As pointed out by van Prooijen et al. 28 however, it has not yet been conclusively explained whether irrational beliefs (paranormal beliefs and conspiracy theory endorsement) are associated with a heightened pattern sensitivity, a tendency to produce false alarms, or if a response bias such as a general yes-say tendency is at the core of these differences. In order to differentiate between these alternatives, a task is required that allows us to quantify hits, misses, correct rejections and false " }, { "term": "belief", "snippet": "Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory | Scientific Reports window.dataLayer = [{\"content\":{\"category\":{\"contentType\":\"article\",\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsPrimaryArticleType\":\"research\",\"webtrendsSubjectTerms\":\"human-behaviour;psychology\",\"webtrendsContentCategory\":null,\"webtrendsContentCollection\":null,\"webtrendsContentGroup\":\"Scientific Reports\",\"webtrendsContentGroupType\":null,\"webtrendsContentSubGroup\":\"Article\",\"status\":null}},\"article\":{\"doi\":\"10.1038/s41598-023-36230-0\"},\"attributes\":{\"cms\":null,\"deliveryPlatform\":\"oscar\",\"copyright\":{\"open\":true,\"legacy\":{\"webtrendsLicenceType\":\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\"}},\"articleInPress\":\"false\"},\"contentInfo\":{\"authors\":[\"Petra M\u00fcller\",\"Matthias Hartmann\"],\"publishedAt\":1686873600,\"publishedAtString\":\"2023-06-16\",\"title\":\"Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory\",\"legacy\":null,\"publishedAtTime\":null,\"documentType\":\"aplusplus\",\"subjects\":\"Human behaviour,Psychology\"},\"journal\":{\"pcode\":\"srep\",\"title\":\"scientific reports\",\"volume\":\"13\",\"issue\":\"1\",\"id\":41598,\"publishingModel\":\"Open Access\"},\"authorization\":{\"status\":true},\"features\":[{\"name\":\"furtherReadingSection\",\"present\":false}],\"collection\":null},\"page\":{\"category\":{\"pageType\":\"article\"},\"attributes\":{\"template\":\"mosaic\",\"featureFlags\":[{\"name\":\"download-collection-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"download-issue-test\",\"active\":false},{\"name\":\"nature-onwards-journey\",\"active\":false}],\"testGroup\":null},\"search\":null},\"privacy\":{},\"version\":\"1.0.0\",\"product\":null,\"session\":null,\"user\":null,\"backHalfContent\":true,\"country\":\"CA\",\"hasBody\":true,\"uneditedManuscript\":false,\"twitterId\":[\"o3xnx\",\"o43y9\",\"o3ef7\"],\"baiduId\":\"d38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea\",\"japan\":false}]; 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window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-ERRNTNZ807', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-71668177-1', twitterId: ['3xnx', 'o43y9', 'o3ef7'], baiduId: 'd38bce82bcb44717ccc29a90c4b781ea', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://sgtm.nature.com', imprint: 'nature' }); (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); @media onl" }, "pmc_existential_threats": { "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12783889/", "final": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12783889/", "status": 200, "title": "Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC", "file": "source_pmc_existential_threats.html", "snippets": [ { "term": "coefficient", "snippet": "acy beliefs. The results of the regression analysis showed that the total effect of existential threats on outgroup conspiracy beliefs was significant (total effect = .25, CI 95% [.11; .39]). As shown in Figure 1 , existential threats positively predicted hypersensitive agency detection ( \u03b2 = .18, p = .010, CI 95% [.04; .32]); in turn, hypersensitive agency detection positively predicted outgroup conspiracy beliefs ( \u03b2 = .31, p < .001, CI 95% [.18; .45]). The residual direct effect was still significant ( \u03b2 = .19, p = .004, CI 95% [.06; .32]). Hypersensitive agency detection therefore played a mediating role in the link between existential threats and outgroup conspiracy beliefs (indirect effect = .06, CI 95% [.01; .12]), and the proportion of the mediating effect was 22.78%. FIGURE 1. Open in a new tab Mediation model (Study 1). All variables were standardized. Path values are the path coefficients with standard errors. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Discussion Study 1 supports Hypothesis 1 by experimentally exposing (or not exposing) participants to current health\u2010related existential threats. However, no effects were observed on the anthropomorphism measure in both studies. This may be due to the anthropomorphism scale being translated into Chinese for the first time or because anthropomorphism is a relatively indirect assessment of hypersensitive agency detection. STUDY 2 Studies 2a and 2b used the same experimental design and manipulation materials as Study 1 to test Hypothesis 2. After the reading task, Studies 2a and 2b employed different measures of the mediating variable, illusory pattern perception (two measures in Study 2a and one measure in Study 2b). We expect to replicate the positive correlation found in Study 1 between existential threats and outgroup conspiracy beliefs to further demonstrate that illusory pattern perception also plays a mediating role between them. STUDY 2A Method Participants and design The study also had a two\u2010cell design (existential threat: exposure vs. control). Based on the same power analysis as in Study 1, a total of 200 adult participants in mainland China were recruited through Credamo in January 2023. Two participants were excluded because they failed our attention checks (e.g. \u2018See this question, please directly select the number \u201c3\u201d\u2019). The final sample for data analysis consisted of 198 participants (99 in the control group, 99 in the experimental group; 78 male, 120 female, M age = 30.29, SD = 7.31). Materials and procedure Participants in the existential threat condition were asked to read and memorize the same materials used in Study 1. Participants in the control condition did not read any materials but instead responded to the dependent variables directly. Following van Prooijen et al. ( 2018 ), we adopted two measures of illusory pattern perception. First, participants were presented with five paintings by the same modern artist, who is known for his random brush strokes and irregular figures. These five were selected from nine original paintings to shorten the measure. Each painting was followed by three questions, the first two of which were used as a distraction to make it plausible to participants that this part of the study was about art. The third question, then, was \u2018To what extent do you see a pattern in this painting?\u2019 (If you only see random strokes of paint, answer \u20181" }, { "term": "conspiracy", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Br J Psychol . 2025 Aug 4;117(1):130\u2013154. doi: 10.1111/bjop.70016 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception Jia\u2010Yan Mao Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1, \u2709 , Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 , Shen\u2010Long Yang Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 Institute of Social Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China Find articles by Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 , Yong\u2010Yu Guo Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 , Bo Wang Bo Wang 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Bo Wang 1 , Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 4 The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands 5 Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Find articles by Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1, 4, 5 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Experimental an" }, { "term": "pattern perception", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Br J Psychol . 2025 Aug 4;117(1):130\u2013154. doi: 10.1111/bjop.70016 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception Jia\u2010Yan Mao Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1, \u2709 , Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 , Shen\u2010Long Yang Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 Institute of Social Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China Find articles by Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 , Yong\u2010Yu Guo Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 , Bo Wang Bo Wang 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Bo Wang 1 , Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 4 The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands 5 Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Find articles by Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1, 4, 5 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 2 School of Ps" }, { "term": "agency detection", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Br J Psychol . 2025 Aug 4;117(1):130\u2013154. doi: 10.1111/bjop.70016 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception Jia\u2010Yan Mao Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1, \u2709 , Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 , Shen\u2010Long Yang Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 Institute of Social Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China Find articles by Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 , Yong\u2010Yu Guo Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 , Bo Wang Bo Wang 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Bo Wang 1 , Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 4 The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands 5 Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Find articles by Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1, 4, 5 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Nethe" }, { "term": "paranormal", "snippet": "s between stimuli (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008 ; Zhao et al., 2014 ). Through pattern perception, people can understand external events and make predictions about the future. Like hypersensitive agency detection, illusory pattern perception has evolutionary significance. Detecting real, informative patterns is highly functional for human survival in a challenging ancestral environment (Walker et al., 2019 ). However, when individuals lack a sense of control or feel uncertain, this functional process can be distorted by increasingly associating stimuli that are, in fact, unrelated, resulting in illusory pattern perception\u2014the identification of meaningful relationships between stimuli that are random or unrelated (van Prooijen et al., 2018 ; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008 ). Previous studies have demonstrated a correlation between illusory pattern perception and various irrational beliefs, such as paranormal beliefs (Blackmore & Moore, 1994 ; van Prooijen et al., 2018 ), superstition (Whitson & Galinsky, 2008 ), pseudo\u2010profound bullshit (Walker et al., 2019 ) and conspiracy beliefs (van Prooijen et al., 2018 ; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008 ). Similar to hypersensitive agency detection, illusory pattern perception is also a logical fallacy rooted in an intuitive thinking style (Hornsey et al., 2023 ). Therefore, recent meta\u2010analyses have likewise found it correlated with conspiracy beliefs (Bowes et al., 2023 ). Integrating these previous findings, we hypothesize that existential threats positively predict outgroup conspiracy beliefs, and that illusory pattern perception mediates this effect (Hypothesis 2). Current research overview In this research, we report an exploratory, not preregistered correlational study (Study S1, in the Supplemental Materials ) and five preregistered experimental studies (Studies 1, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4) that test the sense\u2010making processes derived from the Existential Threat Model of conspiracy theories. Studies S1 and 1 tested Hypothesis 1. Study S1 is a cross\u2010sectional survey in the context of the COVID\u201019 pandemic, whereas Study 1 features an experimental manipulation of exposure to the threat of the monkeypox virus. Studies 2a and 2b tested Hypothesis 2, again experimentally exposing participants to the threat of the monkeypox virus. Studies 3 and 4 tested both hypotheses using experimental manipulations of exposure to the threat of genetically modified foods and exposure to the threat of the discharge of nuclear sewage. All studies were conducted with Chinese samples. Additionally, we included mini meta\u2010analyses of the above studies. Open practices statement All data and materials from the studies reported here are publicly available on the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/dpnmz/files/osfstorage ). For all the studies, we report all the conditions and measures (either in the Method sections or the Supplemental Materials ); data exclusions (if any) are reported in the method sections of the respective studies. All the studies reported here have formal ethical approval, and all the studies (except for Study S1) were preregistered. 1 STUDY 1 Before launching Study 1, we conducted a preliminary survey (Study S1 , in the Supplemental Materials ) in early December 2022, as the Chinese mainland prepared to ease nearly 3 years of strict COVID\u201019 policies. The goal was to explore the relationship between COVID\u201019\u2010related existen" }, { "term": "political", "snippet": "lationships between stimuli (van Prooijen, 2020 ). Recent meta\u2010analyses have found a significant positive correlation between the perception of existential threats (especially external threats, that is, threats coming from the social or physical environment) and views of the world as dangerous and conspiracy beliefs (Biddlestone et al., 2025 ; Bowes et al., 2023 ). Previous studies have provided more detailed evidence. For example, Mao et al. ( 2021 ) found that Chinese participants perceiving stronger systemic threats in the context of the COVID\u201019 pandemic were more likely to embrace conspiracy theories about an outgroup (the United States). Likewise, Jolley et al. ( 2018 ) found that after perceiving systemic threats, conspiracy theories led people to shift the attribution of social problems from the flaws of the system itself to hostile groups. In addition, when people feel that the political group they belong to is threatened by a lost election (Uscinski & Parent, 2014 ), perceive a threat to their religious identity (Mashuri & Zaduqisti, 2014 ), perceive intergroup threats from other countries (Mashuri & Zaduqisti, 2015 ), perceive higher ostracism threats (Poon et al., 2020 ), feel their personal image is threatened (Cichocka et al., 2016 ), experience increased racial discrimination (Crocker et al., 1999 ), perceive increased government corruption (Alper & Imhoff, 2023 ; Hornsey & Pearson, 2022 ) or perceive greater economic inequality (Casara et al., 2022 ; Zeng et al., 2024 ), they tend to believe in conspiracy theories more strongly. Altogether, these findings support the basic premise that feelings of existential threat increase conspiracy beliefs. According to the Existential Threat Model of conspiracy theories (van Prooijen, 2020 ), sense\u2010making processes stimulate conspiracy theories that provide causal explanations for such threatening events. Especially when an antagonistic outgroup is salient during a threatening event, these sense\u2010making processes may turn into conspiracy theories blaming the event on a hostile plot by the outgroup. This process aligns with the evolutionary perspective that mental operations help people recognize the possible dangers posed by potentially hostile groups in threatening situations and have been adaptive for ancestral humans (van Prooijen & van Vugt, 2018 ). We propose that such epistemic sense\u2010making consists of at least two specific cognitive processes: illusory pattern perception and hypersensitive agency detection. Both cognitive processes are indeed associated with conspiracy beliefs (Bowes et al., 2023 ), although research has not yet established whether these processes mediate the effects of existential threats on conspiracy beliefs. Several subtypes of existential threats exist; however, this has implications for the current purposes. Experimental manipulations of personal control\u2014a construct closely associated with existential threats\u2014have shown mixed effects on illusory pattern perception and conspiracy beliefs, with some studies finding a significant association (e.g. Van Harreveld et al., 2014 ; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008 ) and others finding no effect (e.g. Van Elk & Lodder, 2018 ; Varet et al., 2024 ). This also aligns with meta\u2010analytic evidence that the association of conspiracy beliefs with low external control is stronger than with low personal control (Biddlestone et al., 2" }, { "term": "belief", "snippet": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Br J Psychol . 2025 Aug 4;117(1):130\u2013154. doi: 10.1111/bjop.70016 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception Jia\u2010Yan Mao Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Jia\u2010Yan Mao 1, \u2709 , Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Zhao\u2010Xie Zeng 2 , Shen\u2010Long Yang Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 Institute of Social Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China Find articles by Shen\u2010Long Yang 3 , Yong\u2010Yu Guo Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Yong\u2010Yu Guo 2 , Bo Wang Bo Wang 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Find articles by Bo Wang 1 , Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 4 The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands 5 Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Find articles by Jan\u2010Willem van Prooijen 1, 4, 5 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Department of Experimental and Applied P" } ], "text_sample": "@media screen and (min-width: 64em) { div.pmc-wm { background: repeat-y; background-image: url(\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' width='20' height='350' xmlns:xlink='http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink'%3E%3Cdefs%3E%3Cfilter x='-.02' y='0' width='1.05' height='1' id='c'%3E%3CfeFlood flood-color='%23FFF'/%3E%3CfeComposite in='SourceGraphic'/%3E%3C/filter%3E%3Ctext id='b' font-family='Helvetica' font-size='11pt' style='opacity:1;fill:%23005ea2;stroke:none;text-anchor:middle' x='175' y='14'%3E%3C/text%3E%3Cpath id='a' style='fill:%23005ea2' d='M0 8h350v3H0z'/%3E%3C/defs%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23a' transform='rotate(90 10 10)'/%3E%3Cuse xlink:href='%23b' transform='rotate(90 10 10)' filter='url(%23c)'/%3E%3C/svg%3E\"); padding-left: 3rem; } } Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception - PMC Skip to main content An official website of the United States government Here's how you know Here's how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. 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Kennedy (1963) Lee Harvey Oswald (1963) Lal Bahadur Shastri (1966) Harold Holt (1967) Martin Luther King Jr. (1968) Robert F. Kennedy (1968) Salvador Allende (1973) Aldo Moro (1978) Renny Ottolina (1978) Pope John Paul I (1978) Airey Neave (1979) Olof Palme (1986) Zia-ul-Haq (1988) GEC-Marconi scientists (1980s\u201390s) Turgut \u00d6zal (1993) Vince Foster (1993) Kurt Cobain (1994) Yitzhak Rabin (1995) Diana, Princess of Wales (1997) Vatican murders (1998) Viacheslav Chornovil (1999) Nepalese royal family (2001) Yasser Arafat (2004) Benazir Bhutto (2007) Osama bin Laden (2011) Hugo Ch\u00e1vez (2013) Seth Rich (2016) Alejandro Castro (2018) Jeffrey Epstein (2019) Chan Yin-lam (2019) Sushant Singh Rajput (2020) John McAfee (2021) Accidents / disasters Mary Celeste (1872) RMS Titanic (1912) Great Kant\u014d earthquake (1923) Lynmouth Flood (1952) Dyatlov Pass (1959) Lost Cosmonauts (1950s\u201360s) JAT Flight 367 (1972) United Air Lines Flight 553 (1972) Itavia Flight 870 (1980) South African Airways Flight 295 (1987) Khamar-Daban (1993) MS Estonia (1994) TWA Flight 800 (1996) EgyptAir Flight 990 (1999) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (2014) Other cases Joan of Arc (1431) Roanoke Colony (1585) Yemenite children (1948\u201354) Elvis Presley (1977) Jonestown (1978) Body double hoax Paul McCartney Avril Lavigne Vladimir Putin Melania Trump Military, political False flag allegations USS Maine (1898) RMS Lusitania (1915) Reichstag fire (1933) Pearl Harbor (1941) USS Liberty (1967) Lufthansa Flight 615 (1972) Wider\u00f8e Flight 933 (1982) KAL Flight 007 (1983) Mozambican presidential jet (1986) Pan Am Flight 103 (1988) Oklahoma City bombing (1995) 9/11 attacks (2001) advance knowledge WTC collapse Madrid train bombing (2004) London bombings (2005) Smolensk air disaster (2010) Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (2014) Denial of the 7 October attacks (2023) Pseudolaw Admiralty law Freeman on the land movement Redemption movement Sovereign citizens Strawman theory Tax protesters Shadow government claims Bilderberg Illuminati New World Order Synarchism Pseudoscience Astronomy 2012 phenomenon Nibiru cataclysm Ancient astronauts Expanding Earth Apollo Moon landings Flat Earth Hollow Earth Hollow Moon Reptilians UFOs ( Alleged aliens ) Alien abduction Area 51 Black Knight satellite Cryptoterrestrial / Extraterrestrial / Interdimensional hypothesis Dulce Base Estimate of the Situation (1948) Lake Michigan Triangle MJ-12 Men in black Nazi UFOs Die Glocke Project Serpo Hoaxes Dundy County (1884) Maury Island (1947) Roswell (1947) Twin Falls (1947) Aztec, New Mexico (1949) Southern England (1967) Ilkley Moor (1987) Gulf Breeze (1987\u201388) Alien autopsy (1995) Morristown (2009) Health 5G misinformation Anti-vaccination Autism MMR Thiomersal In chiropractic Misinformation Aspartame Big Pharma Chemtrails COVID-19 Ivermectin Lab leak Vaccines Turbo cancer In Canada / Philippines / United States Ebola Electronic harassment Germ theory denialism GMOs HI" }, { "term": "suicide", "snippet": "UADPA), USA law (2023) Category v t e Conspiracy theories List of conspiracy theories Core topics Antiscience Cabals deep state \u00e9minence grise power behind the throne Conspiracy Civil Criminal Political Crisis actors Deception Dystopia Espionage Global catastrophe scenarios Hidden message Pseudohistory Pseudoscience Secrecy Secret societies Urban legends and myths Psychology Attitude polarization Cognitive dissonance Communal reinforcement Confirmation bias Denialism Locus of control Manipulation Mass psychogenic illness moral panics Paranoia Psychological projection Related Argument from ignorance Conspiracy Encyclopedia Conspiracy fiction Conspirituality Dogma pseudoskepticism Falsifiability Fringe science Historical negationism Online youth radicalization Paranormal Prejudice Hate speech Radicalization Science by press conference Superstition Deaths and disappearances Assassination / suicide theories Zachary Taylor (1850) Ludwig II of Bavaria (1886) Louis Le Prince (1890) Lord Kitchener (1916) Tom Thomson (1917) W\u0142adys\u0142aw Sikorski (1943) Benito Mussolini (1945) Adolf Hitler (1945) Subhas Chandra Bose (1945) Johnny Stompanato (1958) Marilyn Monroe (1962) John F. Kennedy (1963) Lee Harvey Oswald (1963) Lal Bahadur Shastri (1966) Harold Holt (1967) Martin Luther King Jr. (1968) Robert F. Kennedy (1968) Salvador Allende (1973) Aldo Moro (1978) Renny Ottolina (1978) Pope John Paul I (1978) Airey Neave (1979) Olof Palme (1986) Zia-ul-Haq (1988) GEC-Marconi scientists (1980s\u201390s) Turgut \u00d6zal (1993) Vince Foster (1993) Kurt Cobain (1994) Yitzhak Rabin (1995) Diana, Princess of Wales (1997) Vatican murders (1998) Viacheslav Chornovil (1999) Nepalese royal family (2001) Yasser Arafat (2004) Benazir Bhutto (2007) Osama bin Laden (2011) Hugo Ch\u00e1vez (2013) Seth Rich (2016) Alejandro Castro (2018) Jeffrey Epstein (2019) Chan Yin-lam (2019) Sushant Singh Rajput (2020) John McAfee (2021) Accidents / disasters Mary Celeste (1872) RMS Titanic (1912) Great Kant\u014d earthquake (1923) Lynmouth Flood (1952) Dyatlov Pass (1959) Lost Cosmonauts (1950s\u201360s) JAT Flight 367 (1972) United Air Lines Flight 553 (1972) Itavia Flight 870 (1980) South African Airways Flight 295 (1987) Khamar-Daban (1993) MS Estonia (1994) TWA Flight 800 (1996) EgyptAir Flight 990 (1999) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (2014) Other cases Joan of Arc (1431) Roanoke Colony (1585) Yemenite children (1948\u201354) Elvis Presley (1977) Jonestown (1978) Body double hoax Paul McCartney Avril Lavigne Vladimir Putin Melania Trump Military, political False flag allegations USS Maine (1898) RMS Lusitania (1915) Reichstag fire (1933) Pearl Harbor (1941) USS Liberty (1967) Lufthansa Flight 615 (1972) Wider\u00f8e Flight 933 (1982) KAL Flight 007 (1983) Mozambican presidential jet (1986) Pan Am Flight 103 (1988) Oklahoma City bombing (1995) 9/11 attacks (2001) advance knowledge WTC collapse Madrid train bombing (2004) London bombings (2005) Smolensk air disaster (2010) Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (2014) Denial of the 7 October attacks (2023) Pseudolaw Admiralty law Freeman on the land movement Redemption movement Sovereign citizens Strawman theory Tax protesters Shadow government claims Bilderberg Illuminati New World Order Synarchism Pseudoscience Astronomy 2012 phenomenon Nibiru cataclysm Ancient astronauts Expanding Earth Apollo Moon landings Flat Earth Hollow Earth Hollow Moon Reptilians UFOs ( Alleged aliens )" }, { "term": "bloodline", "snippet": "s California drought manipulation HAARP 2024 Atlantic hurricanes Camp Fire disinformation Race, religion, ethnicity Bhagwa Love Trap CERN ritual hoax COVID-19 and xenophobia Freemasons French Revolution [ fr ] Gas chambers for Poles in Warsaw (1940s) Prisoners of war Germans (post-WWII) Priory of Sion Product labeling Halal Kosher Tartarian Empire War against Islam White genocide Antisemitic Andinia Plan Blood libel Cohen Plan Doctors' plot During the Black Death Epsilon Team George Soros Holocaust denial Trivialization International Jewish conspiracy Committee of 300 Cultural Bolshevism / Jewish Bolshevism \u017bydokomuna Judeo-Masonic plot The Protocols of the Elders of Zion World War II Z.O.G. Judeopolonia Killing of Jesus Kalergi Plan New World Order Rothschilds Stab-in-the-back myth Christian Bible conspiracy theory Christian persecution complex Christ myth theory Caesar\u2019s Messiah Jesus bloodline Anti-Christian Anti-Catholic Vatican John Paul Giuseppe Siri Popish Plot Jesuits Islamophobic Counter-jihad Bihar human sacrifice Eurabia Great Replacement Love jihad Proposed \"Islamo-leftism\" inquiry Trojan Horse scandal Genocide denial / Denial of mass killings Armenian Assyrian Bangladesh Bosnian Cambodian Gaza Pallywood The Holocaust Holodomor Nanjing Rwandan Serbs during WWII Regional Asia India Cow vigilante violence Pakistan Jinnahpur Philippines Tallano gold South Korea Finger-pinching Thailand Finland Plot Americas (outside the United States) Argentina Andinia Plan Canada Avro Arrow cancellation Trudeau-Castro conspiracy Leuchter report Peru Casa Matusita Venezuela Daktari Ranch affair Golpe Azul Middle East / North Africa In the Arab world 10 agorot Cairo fire Kissinger Plan in Lebanon Israel-related animal theories Iran Western-backed Iranian Revolution Israel Pallywood Russia Alaska payment Dulles' Plan Golden billion Petrograd Military Organization Rasputin Ukraine bioweapons Genocide in Donbas Turkey 2016 coup attempt Ergenekon Operation Sledgehammer Gezi Park protests S\u00e8vres syndrome \u00dcst ak\u0131l Other European Euromyth Georgia Global War Party Germany Vril Society Ireland German Plot Lithuania Statesmen Roman Republic First Catilinarian conspiracy Spain Mano Negra affair Sweden Lilla Saltsj\u00f6badsavtalet UK Clockwork Orange plot Elm Guest House Harold Wilson Voting pencil United States 4 AM club Barack Obama Citizenship Religion Parentage \"Obamagate\" / Spygate Biden\u2013Ukraine Black helicopters CIA and JFK CIA assistance to bin Laden Clinton body count Cultural Marxism Election denial movement FBI secret society FEMA camps Georgia Guidestones Jade Helm 15 Montauk Project Philadelphia Experiment Pizzagate The Plan Project Azorian QAnon Pastel Incidents Saddam\u2013al-Qaeda Sandy Hook (2012) Springfield pet-eating hoax Trump\u2013Ukraine \"Vast right-wing conspiracy\" Vietnam War POW/MIA issue / Stab-in-the-back myth 2020 election Italygate \"Pence Card\" Maricopa County ballot audit Stop the Steal Other Dead Internet theory NESARA/GESARA New Coke Phantom time / New chronology Shakespearean authorship Satirical Acre Bielefeld Birds Aren't Real Li's field Ted Cruz\u2013Zodiac Killer meme Epstein didn't kill himself v t e Pseudoscience List of pseudoscience topics Terminology Cargo cult science Charlatan Crank Fringe theory Fringe science Pseudoarchaeology Pseudohistory Pseudomathematics Junk science Paranormal Pathological science Quackery Snake oil Superseded " }, { "term": "shape-shifting", "snippet": "of the Matrix (2001). [ 14 ] Historian Edward Guimont has argued that the reptilian conspiracy theory, particularly as expounded by Icke, drew from earlier pseudohistorical legends developed during the colonisation of Africa , particularly surrounding Great Zimbabwe and the mokele-mbembe . [ 15 ] Alien abduction Alien abduction narratives sometimes allege contact with reptilian creatures. [ 16 ] One of the earliest reports was that of Ashland, Nebraska police officer Herbert Schirmer, who under hypnosis recalled being taken aboard a UFO in 1967 by humanoid beings with a slightly reptilian appearance, who wore a \"winged serpent\" emblem on the left side of their chests. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Skeptics consider his claims to be a hoax . [ 19 ] David Icke According to British conspiracy theorist David Icke, who first published on this theme in his 1999 work The Biggest Secret , tall, blood-drinking, shape-shifting reptilian humanoids from the Alpha Draconis star system, now hiding in underground bases, are the force behind a worldwide conspiracy against humanity . [ 20 ] He contends that most of the world's ancient and modern leaders are related to these reptilians, including the Merovingian dynasty , the Rothschilds , the Bush family and the British Royal family . [ 21 ] Icke's conspiracy theories now have supporters in up to 47 countries and he has given lectures to crowds of up to 6,000 people. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] American writer Vicki Santillano included Icke's conspiracy theory in her list of the 10 most popular conspiracy theories. [ 24 ] A poll of Americans in 2013 by Public Policy Polling indicated that 4% of registered voters (\u00b12.8%) believed in David Icke's ideas. [ 25 ] Politics On September 12, 2003, during the provincial election campaign in Ontario , Canada , the Ernie Eves campaign issued a news release that called opponent Dalton McGuinty an \" evil reptilian kitten-eater from another planet \". [ 26 ] The words appeared at the end of the news release. Eves said the epithet was meant as a joke, and acknowledged the words were \"over the top\", but refused to apologize. [ 26 ] In the closely-fought 2008 U.S. Senate election in Minnesota between comedian and commentator Al Franken and incumbent Senator Norm Coleman , one of the ballots challenged by Coleman included a vote for Franken with \"Lizard People\" written in the space provided for write-in candidates. [ 27 ] Lucas Davenport, who later claimed to have written the gag ballot, said, \"I don't know if you've heard the conspiracy theory about the Lizard Men; a friend of mine, we didn't like the candidates, so we were at first going to write in 'revolution', because we thought that was good and to the point. And then, we thought 'the Lizard People' would be even funnier.\" [ 28 ] Franken won the election after recount. In February 2011, on the Opie and Anthony radio show, the comedian Louis C.K. jokingly asked former U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld a number of times if he and Dick Cheney were lizard people who enjoyed the taste of human flesh. Amused by Rumsfeld's refusal to directly answer the question, C.K. suggested it was a possible admission of guilt. He went on to further muse that perhaps those who are lizard people cannot lie about it; when asked if they are lizards, they either have to avoid answering the question or say yes. [ 29 ] On March 4, 2013, a video depicting a security" }, { "term": "lizard", "snippet": "ight:-0.125em;content:\"[ \"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:\" ]\"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Reptilians (also called archons , [ 1 ] reptoids , [ 2 ] reptiloids , saurians , draconians , [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or lizard people [ 5 ] ) are reptilian humanoids , which play a prominent role in fantasy , science fiction , ufology , and conspiracy theories . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The idea of reptilians was popularised by David Icke , a conspiracy theorist who claims shapeshifting reptilian aliens control Earth by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate human societies. Icke has stated on multiple occasions that many world leaders were, or are possessed by, so-called reptilians. Origins Michael Barkun , professor of political science at Syracuse University , posits that the idea of a reptilian conspiracy originated in the fiction of Conan the Barbarian creator Robert E. Howard , in his story \" The Shadow Kingdom \" (1929). [ 8 ] This story drew on theosophical ideas of the \"lost worlds\" of Atlantis and Lemuria , particularly Helena Blavatsky 's The Secret Doctrine (1888), with its reference to \" ' dragon-men' who once had a mighty civilization on a Lemurian continent\". [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Howard's \" serpent men \" were described as humanoids (with human bodies and snake heads) who were able to imitate humans at will, and who lived in underground passages and used their shapechanging and mind-control abilities to infiltrate humanity. [ 8 ] Clark Ashton Smith used Howard's \"serpent men\" in his stories, as well as themes from H. P. Lovecraft , and he, Howard and Lovecraft together laid the basis for the Cthulhu Mythos . [ 11 ] In the 1940s, American occultist Maurice Doreal (also known as Claude Doggins) [ 12 ] wrote a pamphlet entitled \"Mysteries of the Gobi\" that described a \"serpent race\" with \"bodies like man but...heads...like a great snake\" and an ability to take human form. [ 13 ] These creatures also appeared in Doreal's poem \" The Emerald Tablets \", in which he referred to Emerald Tablets written by \"Thoth, an Atlantean Priest king\". Barkun asserts that \"in all likelihood\", Doreal's ideas came from \"The Shadow Kingdom\", and that in turn, \"The Emerald Tablets\" formed the basis for David Icke 's book, Children of the Matrix (2001). [ 14 ] Historian Edward Guimont has argued that the reptilian conspiracy theory, particularly as expounded by Icke, drew from earlier pseudohistorical legends developed during the colonisation of Africa , particularly surrounding Great Zimbabwe and the mokele-mbembe . [ 15 ] Alien abduction Alien abduction narratives sometimes allege contact with reptilian creatures. 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[ 6 ] [ 7 ] The idea of reptilians was popularised by David Icke , a conspiracy theorist who claims shapeshifting reptilian aliens control Earth by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate human societies. Icke has stated on multiple occasions that many world leaders were, or are possessed by, so-called reptilians. Origins Michael Barkun , professor of political science at Syracuse University , posits that the idea of a reptilian conspiracy originated in the fiction of Conan the Barbarian creator Robert E. Howard , in his story \" The Shadow Kingdom \" (1929). [ 8 ] This story drew on theosophical ideas of the \"lost worlds\" of Atlantis and Lemuria , particularly Helena Blavatsky 's The Secret Doctrine (1888), with its reference to \" ' dragon-men' who once had a mighty civilization on a Lemurian continent\". [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Howard's \" serpent men \" were described as humanoids (with human bodies and snake heads) who were able to imitate humans at will, and who lived in underground passages and used their shapechanging and mind-control abilities to infiltrate humanity. [ 8 ] Clark Ashton Smith used Howard's \"serpent men\" in his stories, as well as themes from H. P. Lovecraft , and he, Howard and Lovecraft together laid the basis for the Cthulhu Mythos . [ 11 ] In the 1940s, American occultist Maurice Doreal (also known as Claude Doggins) [ 12 ] wrote a pamphlet entitled \"Mysteries of the Gobi\" that described a \"serpent race\" with \"bodies like man but...heads...like a great snake\" and an ability to take human form. [ 13 ] These creatures also appeared in Doreal's poem \" The Emerald Tablets \", in which he referred to Emerald Tablets written by \"Thoth, an Atlantean Priest king\". Barkun asserts that \"in all likelihood\", Doreal's ideas came from \"The Shadow Kingdom\", and that in turn, \"The Emerald Tablets\" formed the basis for David Icke 's book, Children of the Matrix (2001). [ 14 ] Historian Edward Guimont has argued that the reptilian conspiracy theory, particularly as expounded by Icke, drew from earlier pseudohistorical legends developed during the colonisation of Africa , particularly surrounding Great Zimbabwe and the mokele-mbembe . [ 15 ] Alien abduction Alien abduction narratives sometimes allege contact with reptilian creatures. [ 16 ] One of the earliest reports was that of Ashland, Nebraska police officer Herbert Schirmer, who under hypnosis recalled being taken aboard a UFO in 1967 by humanoid beings with a slightly reptilian appearance, who wore a \"winged serpent\" emblem on the left side of their chests. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Skeptics consider his claims to be a hoax . [ 19 ] David Icke According to British conspiracy " }, { "term": "belief", "snippet": "c aliens Reptilian humanoids Studies and timeline Investigation of UFO reports by the United States government The Flying Saucers Are Real (1947\u20131950) Project Sign (1948) Project Grudge (1949) Flying Saucer Working Party (1950) Project Magnet (1950\u20131962) Project Second Storey (1952\u20131954) Project Blue Book (1952\u20131970) Robertson Panel (1953) Ruppelt report (1956) National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena (1956\u20131980) Condon Report (1966\u20131968) Institute 22 (1978\u2013?) Project Condign (1997\u20132000) Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program (2007\u20132012) Identification studies of UFOs Unidentified Aerial Phenomena Task Force (current) NASA's UAP independent study team Archives of the Impossible Aligned, Multiple-transient Events in the First Palomar Sky Survey (2025) Hypotheses Ancient astronauts Cryptoterrestrial Extraterrestrial Interdimensional Psychological perspectives on UFO belief Psychosocial Nazi UFOs Time-traveller Posadist Trotskyism Conspiracy theories Area 51 Storm Area 51 Ashtar Sheran Bob Lazar Dulce Base Men in black Missing scientists Project Serpo Involvement Abduction claims History Narrative Perspectives Insurance Other Implants Cattle mutilation Close encounter Contactee Crop circles Government responses GEIPAN Organizations Ufologists Disclosure movement Culture The Age of Disclosure Fiction Religions list Skepticism List of scientific skeptics Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Government and law United States Congress hearings on UFOs (2022) Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena Disclosure Act (UADPA), USA law (2023) Category v t e Conspiracy theories List of conspiracy theories Core topics Antiscience Cabals deep state \u00e9minence grise power behind the throne Conspiracy Civil Criminal Political Crisis actors Deception Dystopia Espionage Global catastrophe scenarios Hidden message Pseudohistory Pseudoscience Secrecy Secret societies Urban legends and myths Psychology Attitude polarization Cognitive dissonance Communal reinforcement Confirmation bias Denialism Locus of control Manipulation Mass psychogenic illness moral panics Paranoia Psychological projection Related Argument from ignorance Conspiracy Encyclopedia Conspiracy fiction Conspirituality Dogma pseudoskepticism Falsifiability Fringe science Historical negationism Online youth radicalization Paranormal Prejudice Hate speech Radicalization Science by press conference Superstition Deaths and disappearances Assassination / suicide theories Zachary Taylor (1850) Ludwig II of Bavaria (1886) Louis Le Prince (1890) Lord Kitchener (1916) Tom Thomson (1917) W\u0142adys\u0142aw Sikorski (1943) Benito Mussolini (1945) Adolf Hitler (1945) Subhas Chandra Bose (1945) Johnny Stompanato (1958) Marilyn Monroe (1962) John F. Kennedy (1963) Lee Harvey Oswald (1963) Lal Bahadur Shastri (1966) Harold Holt (1967) Martin Luther King Jr. (1968) Robert F. Kennedy (1968) Salvador Allende (1973) Aldo Moro (1978) Renny Ottolina (1978) Pope John Paul I (1978) Airey Neave (1979) Olof Palme (1986) Zia-ul-Haq (1988) GEC-Marconi scientists (1980s\u201390s) Turgut \u00d6zal (1993) Vince Foster (1993) Kurt Cobain (1994) Yitzhak Rabin (1995) Diana, Princess of Wales (1997) Vatican murders (1998) Viacheslav Chornovil (1999) Nepalese royal family (2001) Yasser Arafat (2004) Benazir Bhutto (2007) Osama bin Laden (2011) Hugo Ch\u00e1vez (2013) Seth Rich (2016) Alejandro Castro (2018) Jeffrey Epstein (2019) Chan Yin-lam (201" }, { "term": "antisemit", "snippet": "re lizards, they either have to avoid answering the question or say yes. [ 29 ] On March 4, 2013, a video depicting a security agent with unusual features guarding a speech by U.S. President Barack Obama was spotlighted in a Wired report about shapeshifting reptilian humanoids. This led to a tongue-in-cheek response from chief National Security Council spokeswoman Caitlin Hayden who said \"any alleged program to guard the president with aliens or robots would likely have to be scaled back or eliminated in the sequester \". [ 30 ] In October 2022, Dutch MP Thierry Baudet , head of the far-right Forum for Democracy , said in an interview with the \"Geopolitics and Empire\" podcast that he believes that the world is \"being governed by evil reptiles\". [ 31 ] Some adherents of the QAnon conspiracy theory have also borrowed from the reptilian conspiracy theory, [ 32 ] including elements shared in antisemitic conspiracy theories . 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